The Nationalist Movement (1922-29)
The sudden and unexpected withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922, following the Chauri Chaura incident, marked a moment of significant disillusionment and confusion within the Indian nationalist movement. A campaign that had united millions of Indians across classes, regions, and communities came to a halt, leaving behind morale-depleted cadres and a temporarily stalled momentum.
However, the years 1922 to 1929 were far from a political vacuum. Instead, this period became a fertile ground for ideological debates, strategic realignments, and the emergence of new leaders and trends that would shape the next phase of India’s freedom struggle.
Key Characteristics of the Post-Non-Cooperation Period (1922–1929)
1. Strategic Diversification:
With large-scale mass movements off the table for the time being, nationalist leaders began to explore alternative methods of political engagement:
- Some focused on participating in legislative councils under the colonial system in order to expose and challenge British policies from within. This became known as the Council Entry Programme.
- Others continued the Gandhian approach of constructive work, emphasising the promotion of Khadi, village industries, national education, Hindu-Muslim unity, and the eradication of untouchability.
2. Emergence of New Leaders and Ideologies
This transitional phase also witnessed the rise of a new generation of nationalist leaders who brought fresh ideas, energy, and assertiveness to the freedom movement:
- Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose began gaining prominence, advocating for more radical methods and complete independence rather than incremental reforms.
- These leaders were heavily influenced by global events, such as the Russian Revolution, and emphasised socialist and anti-imperialist ideals.
3. Communal Tensions and the Breakdown of Unity
The Hindu-Muslim unity that had been forged during the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation phase began to deteriorate. The withdrawal of the movement and the collapse of the Khilafat cause led to resentment, and a series of communal riots broke out across India, eroding the gains made earlier in terms of inter-community solidarity.
4. Rise of Revolutionary Nationalism
Disillusioned with both constitutional politics and Gandhian pacifism, a section of youth turned to revolutionary methods. Underground groups like the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) and later the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) emerged, led by figures such as Ram Prasad Bismil, Bhagat Singh, Chandrasekhar Azad, and others. These revolutionaries advocated direct action, armed resistance, and martyrdom as a means to inspire national awakening.
The Pro-Changers vs. No-Changers Debate within the Congress
Political Vacuum Post-1922
The end of the Non-Cooperation Movement left the Indian National Congress at a strategic crossroads:
- Mahatma Gandhi was imprisoned, and with his absence, a leadership crisis emerged.
- There was a consensus that launching another mass movement immediately was not feasible due to public fatigue, lack of preparedness, and internal fragmentation.
Leaders were divided on the approach to be taken during this period of non-agitation:
1. The Pro-Changers (Swarajists)
- Led by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru, the Pro-Changers formed the Swaraj Party in 1923.
- They advocated for entry into the legislative councils established under the Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms).
- Their goal was to disrupt colonial governance from within, expose the hollowness of reforms, and build political pressure through obstructive tactics in legislatures.
- They believed that legislative engagement and mass mobilisation could go hand in hand, and saw council entry as a tactical necessity, not ideological compromise.
2. The No-Changers
- The No-Changers, aligned with Gandhi’s principles, opposed council entry, arguing it would:
- Dilute the focus on constructive programmes.
- Legitimise colonial institutions, even inadvertently.
- Cause nationalist leaders to cooperate with the British on superficial reforms.
- They remained committed to grassroots mobilisation, village reconstruction, and preparing the masses for the next phase of civil disobedience.
Even from jail, Mahatma Gandhi remained the moral leader of the No-Changers, insisting that non-violence and constructive work were the only legitimate paths forward.
Implication s of the Pro-Changer vs. No-Changer Divide
Although the debate was intense, it remained largely non-destructive, showcasing the democratic and pluralistic ethos of the national movement. Both groups were committed to the broader goal of independence, and many leaders often moved between the two camps based on shifting contexts.
- The Swaraj Party achieved limited legislative success but was effective in highlighting the inefficacy of the British reforms.
- The No-Changers succeeded in sustaining the ideological integrity of the movement and kept the Gandhian agenda alive during the lull.
A Period of Political Maturation and Strategic Evolution
The phase between 1922 and 1929 stands out as a pivotal period of political maturation in the Indian freedom struggle. Though relatively quieter than preceding and succeeding years, it was by no means dormant. Rather, it was a time marked by:
- Strategic reflection on the lessons of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
- Organisational reorientation within the Indian National Congress.
- Ideological broadening to accommodate diverse visions of India’s future.
- Emergence of new leadership and political thought.
✦ This era strengthened the foundations of the nationalist movement, enabling it to launch future campaigns—most notably the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930—with greater clarity, unity, and resilience.
✦ The internal debates between the Pro-Changers (those in favour of council entry and legislative activism) and No-Changers (staunch Gandhian non-cooperationists) reflected a dynamic and evolving political consciousness. These discussions showcased the movement’s capacity for introspection, flexibility, and democratic engagement.
✦ Most significantly, this period affirmed that Indian nationalism had outgrown its earlier monolithic character. It now encompassed a spectrum of ideologies and actors—from Gandhian reformers, constitutional moderates, and revolutionaries, to emerging socialists, and a politically awakened citizenry.
In essence, the years 1922 to 1929 laid the intellectual and structural groundwork for the intensifying nationalist struggle ahead, while fostering a more inclusive, pluralistic, and strategically mature freedom movement.
The Swaraj Party (1923–1929): Strategy, Struggle, and Significance
The sudden withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922, following the Chauri Chaura incident, created a vacuum within the national movement. While the masses had shown an unparalleled level of mobilisation during the Non-Cooperation phase, the abrupt end demoralised Congress workers, disoriented leadership, and left the movement without a clear strategy.
The period from 1922 to 1929 was thus marked by ideological debates, strategic realignments, and the emergence of new leadership. One of the most significant developments during this phase was the formation and evolution of the Swaraj Party, which attempted to keep the anti-colonial struggle alive within the limited constitutional framework of British India.
Gaya Session of the Indian National Congress (1922)
The 37th annual session of the Indian National Congress was held at Gaya in December 1922, with Chittaranjan Das (Deshbandhu) presiding over the deliberations.
- The primary issue debated was whether Congress should continue to boycott British-created legislative councils or consider entering them to expose and obstruct the colonial government from within.
- C.R. Das, a senior Congress leader, moved a resolution in favour of council entry, advocating a new political strategy to work within the system for nationalist ends.
- However, the majority of delegates voted against the resolution, preferring to uphold Gandhi’s strategy of non-cooperation.
Formation of the Swaraj Party
Following the defeat of the council-entry resolution, C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from their posts as President and Secretary of Congress, respectively.
- On 31 December 1922, at a meeting held at Tecori Palace, Chittaranjan Das announced the formation of a new political platform called the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party.
- Das became the President, while Motilal Nehru served as one of the Secretaries.
- By 1923, the party came to be known simply as the Swaraj Party.
Ideological Balance and Internal Cooperation
Although the Pro-Changers (Swarajists) and No-Changers (Gandhians) held differing views on the mode of political engagement, they were united in their anti-imperialist goals.
- Both groups agreed to avoid a repeat of the 1907 Surat split, which had weakened the national movement.
- On Gandhi’s advice, the Swarajists were allowed to function within the Congress fold, maintaining a distinct strategy while upholding the larger goals of the party.
- The Special Congress Session in Delhi (September 1923), presided over by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, formally allowed the Swarajists to contest elections under the Congress banner.
The Swarajists: Vision and Political Strategy
The Swarajists believed that the constructive work of spinning, Khadi promotion, and social reform was important but insufficient without a strong political campaign to pressurise the colonial government.
Key Principles of the Swarajist Programme:
- Council Entry: Use the legislative councils to oppose, obstruct, and expose colonial policies.
- Dual Approach: Combine parliamentary agitation with continued support for constructive national work.
- No compromise on fundamentals: The goal remained Swaraj (self-rule), and council entry was seen as a tactical step, not an ideological shift.
Performance in the 1923 Elections
The Swaraj Party contested the 1923 legislative council elections under the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919.
- Despite limited time for preparation, the Swarajists performed impressively, winning 42 out of 101 elected seats in the Central Legislative Assembly.
- The Liberals, who had earlier cooperated with the British and were part of the councils during the Non-Cooperation Movement, were discredited in the eyes of the public.
- The Swarajists were seen as Gandhi’s ideological allies, which gave them credibility and electoral support.
Achievements of the Swarajists
Inside the Legislative Councils:
- Swarajist members delivered powerful speeches demanding civil liberties, self-government, and industrial development.
- They successfully formed alliances with other Indian groups, often outvoting government proposals.
- In March 1925, Vithalbhai J. Patel, a prominent Swarajist, was elected President (Speaker) of the Central Legislative Assembly, a symbolic and strategic win.
- They exposed the hollowness of the 1919 reforms, making it evident that legislative councils lacked real power.
- In 1928, they successfully blocked the Public Safety Bill, which sought to deport “subversive” foreigners.
Reform Proposals:
- The Swarajists moved a non-official resolution demanding a review of the Government of India Act, 1919, proposing:
- Dominion status within the British Empire
- Provincial autonomy and responsible governance
- The government rejected the resolution, and Sir Malcolm Hailey clarified that responsible government did not necessarily imply Dominion status—highlighting the imperial reluctance to devolve real power.
Limitations and Constraints
Despite their initial success, the Swarajists encountered significant internal and external challenges:
1. Compromises on Peasant Issues:
- While supporting agrarian justice, the Swarajists were cautious in opposing landlords, as many wealthy landowners funded their election campaigns.
- This limited their mass appeal and made them vulnerable to criticism from more radical sections of the national movement.
2. Limited Commitment to Constructive Work:
- Unlike the No-Changers, the Swarajists did not fully implement the constructive programme with the same discipline and consistency.
- Their focus remained largely within parliamentary politics, which weakened the grassroots foundation of their movement.
Emergence of Responsivists and Internal Dissent
By 1925–26, a new divide emerged within the Swaraj Party itself:
- Responsivists, including Madan Mohan Malaviya, Lala Lajpat Rai, and N.C. Kelkar, advocated cooperation with the government, especially to protect Hindu interests.
- At the Faridpur Conference in 1925, C.R. Das hinted at a willingness to cooperate with the government if meaningful reforms were introduced.
- This shift toward cooperation alienated more radical elements and created a rift between Responsivists and Non-Cooperators.
Communalism also began to penetrate nationalist politics, with some Responsivists accusing Motilal Nehru of betraying Hindu interests, and spreading false rumours regarding his dietary and religious practices.
1926 Elections and Decline of the Swaraj Party
The death of C.R. Das in June 1925 dealt a severe blow to the party’s morale and unity.
- By the time of the 1926 elections, the Swarajists were weakened by internal divisions, communal polarisation, and organisational fatigue.
- In the Central Legislative Assembly, their representation fell from 42 to 35.
- Except in Madras, they lost ground across the country.
Final Phase and Merger with the Congress
The announcement of the Simon Commission in 1927 and Lord Birkenhead’s challenge to Indians to draft a constitution opened a new phase in the nationalist struggle.
- The All-Parties Conference in May 1928 appointed the Nehru Committee, led by Motilal Nehru, to draft a constitution for India.
- The Calcutta Congress of 1928 resolved that if the British did not accept the Nehru Report by 31 December 1929, the Congress would demand complete independence.
- In this new context, the council entry strategy of the Swaraj Party became obsolete.
The Swarajists formally merged with the Congress, reuniting the party to prepare for the next wave of mass action—the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Drawbacks and Legacy of the Swaraj Party
Key Limitations:
- Inability to Change Government Policy: The Swarajists failed to fundamentally alter British policies. Frustrated by legislative constraints, they walked out of the Central Assembly in March 1926 and again in January 1930.
2. Limited Mass Mobilisation: The party remained confined to upper-middle-class urban elites, failing to engage the rural masses and working classes.
3. Class Composition: Despite its progressive ideals, the party’s class base limited its reach and capacity for transformative action.
The No-Changers: Upholding the Gandhian Line (Post-1922 Phase)
Following the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922, a major ideological debate emerged within the Indian National Congress. While the Pro-Changers (Swarajists) advocated council entry to challenge British rule from within, the No-Changers remained firmly committed to the original Gandhian programme of constructive work and non-cooperation.
Philosophy and Role of the No-Changers
The No-Changers believed that true Swaraj could only be achieved through mass awakening, self-reliance, and moral regeneration, not through collaboration with colonial institutions. They focused on building foundational institutions that could support future mass movements.
Key Initiatives and Contributions:
- They actively promoted the constructive programme initiated by Mahatma Gandhi, becoming the backbone of future civil disobedience campaigns.
- Several ashrams and centres of rural upliftment were established, where young men and women were trained in spinning (charkha), khadi production, and working among Dalits and tribal communities to promote social inclusion and anti-caste awareness.
- A network of nationalist educational institutions was developed, aimed at imparting non-colonial, value-based education to Indian youth.
Participation in Local Self-Government
While the No-Changers boycotted the legislative councils, they did not entirely withdraw from electoral participation. They actively contested municipal and local body elections, viewing these platforms as opportunities to implement grassroots reforms and connect with the urban population.
Notable Examples of Local Involvement (1924):
Leader | City | Position Held | Notable Contribution |
Jawaharlal Nehru | Allahabad | Mayor | Played a key role in municipal governance during the post-Non-Cooperation phase. |
Vallabhbhai Patel | Ahmedabad | Mayor | Strengthened local governance; linked constructive work with civic responsibilities. |
Rajendra Prasad | Patna | Mayor | Promoted nationalist ideals through local self-governance structures. |
Chittaranjan Das | Calcutta | Mayor | Appointed Subhas Chandra Bose as Chief Executive Officer, launching Bose’s public career. |
The No-Changers played a vital role in preserving the ideological purity of the national movement during a period of transition. While their focus was not on immediate political gains, their grassroots work, commitment to Gandhian ideals, and institution-building efforts laid the moral and organisational foundation for the future mass movements of the 1930s and 1940s.
Their quiet perseverance ensured that nationalist momentum did not dissipate, even when the broader movement seemed to be in retreat.
Mahatma Gandhi’s Release from Prison and His New Focus
- Mahatma Gandhi was released from prison in February 1924 on health grounds after serving nearly two years of his six-year sentence. With the national movement momentarily halted after the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement (1922), Gandhi redirected his energy toward social and economic upliftment, rather than immediate political agitation.
- Post-release, Gandhi concentrated on:
- Promoting Khadi and the Swadeshi spirit, encouraging Indians to wear hand-spun cloth to boycott British textiles and promote rural self-reliance.
- Eradicating untouchability, which he regarded as the “greatest blot” on Hinduism. He called the oppressed castes “Harijans” (Children of God).
- Hindu-Muslim unity, recognising communal harmony as essential for national unity.
Belgaum Session of the Indian National Congress (1924)
- The 39th annual session of the Indian National Congress was held in Belgaum (present-day Belagavi, Karnataka) in December 1924.
- Mahatma Gandhi presided over this session, the only time he ever held the position of Congress President.
Significance of the Belgaum Session:
- It marked a reconciliation between the No-Changers (who supported Gandhian constructive work and boycott of councils) and the Swarajists (who wanted to enter legislative councils).
- A formal Gandhi-Nehru-Das Pact was signed:
- The Congress recognised the Swarajists as its official representatives inside the councils.
- In return, the Swarajists agreed that spinning khadi would be a condition for Congress membership.
- This compromise helped restore organisational unity within the Congress after internal friction.
Rising Tide of Communalism in the Post-Non-Cooperation Period
As the momentum of the Non-Cooperation Movement faded after 1922, there was a vacuum in political mobilisation, leading to the resurgence of communal tensions across India.
Key Features of Growing Communalism (1922–1927):
1. Emergence of Communal Politics:
- Communal riots broke out with increasing frequency, especially in the United Provinces (U.P.), where 91 riots occurred between 1923–1927.
- Contentious issues such as cow slaughter, music before mosques, and religious processions became flashpoints for violence.
2. Polarisation of Political Organisations:
- The Hindu Mahasabha, though founded in 1915, gained prominence during this period by advocating Hindu interests.
- The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) was established in 1925, promoting Hindu cultural and political consciousness.
- The Muslim League was revived in 1922–23 and began explicitly supporting separatist politics.
3. Parallel Religious Revival Movements:
- Among Hindus, the Shuddhi (reconversion) and Sangathan (consolidation) movements, aimed at reconverting and unifying Hindus, gained traction.
- In response, Muslim movements like Tanzim (organisation) and Tabligh (propagation) emerged to strengthen Islamic identity and resist Hindu influence.
4. Political Split in Congress:
- Communal tendencies even seeped into Congress ranks. Leaders like Madan Mohan Malaviya, Lala Lajpat Rai, and C. Kelkar (known as Responsivists) supported cooperation with the government to safeguard Hindu interests.
- These leaders accused Motilal Nehru of betraying Hindu values, favouring cow slaughter, and eating beef—leading to internal polarisation.
Gandhiji’s Efforts to Tackle Communalism
- Alarmed by the rising communal discord, Mahatma Gandhi undertook a 21-day fast in September 1924 in Delhi at the residence of Maulana Mohammad Ali.
- This act of self-purification and penance aimed to rekindle the spirit of Hindu-Muslim unity.
- Despite the symbolic power of the fast, its impact was limited, and communal tensions continued to simmer.
- Alarmed by the rising communal discord, Mahatma Gandhi undertook a 21-day fast in September 1924 in Delhi at the residence of Maulana Mohammad Ali.
Underlying Factors Behind Communal Polarisation:
1. Legacy of the Khilafat Movement:
- Religious leaders who had become politically active during the Khilafat agitation now continued shaping political narratives in religious terms.
2. Impact of Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919):
- The reforms introduced separate electorates, legitimising communal identity as a basis for political representation.
- This system allowed political actors to exploit communal sentiments for electoral advantage.
3. Unemployment Among Educated Youth:
- Mass education outpaced job creation, leading to a surge of educated, unemployed individuals.
- Many turned to communal organisations to secure opportunities and patronage.
Tablighi Jamaat: A Response to Religious Challenges
- The Tablighi Jamaat was founded in 1926 by Maulana Muhammad Ilyas al-Kandhlawi, a Deobandi Islamic scholar, in Mewat, India.
Aims and Characteristics:
- The Jamaat was created as a revivalist Islamic movement, not aimed at converting people of other faiths, but at ‘purifying’ Muslim faith and practice.
- Inspired by the teachings of the Deoband School, the movement urged Muslims to:
- Live like Prophet Muhammad
- Embrace piety, simplicity, and religious observance
Background and Motivation:
- The rise of Hindu revivalist movements such as Shuddhi (reconversion) and Sangathan (Hindu unity) prompted many Muslims to consolidate their identity.
- The Tabligh and Tanzim movements were created as spiritual and organisational responses to protect and promote Islamic values in an increasingly competitive communal space.
Emergence of New Forces in the 1920s
Rapid Spread of Socialist Ideas
The year 1927 marked the beginning of a new ideological shift within the Indian National Movement as Marxist and socialist ideologies began gaining traction among Indian nationalists. This development signalled the rise of a new left-wing within the Indian National Congress, led by visionary leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose.
This socialist current not only continued the anti-imperialist struggle but also began to address internal social and economic exploitation, particularly by landlords and capitalists. It challenged the existing class structure and demanded complete independence as opposed to mere dominion status.
Background and Early Influences
The success of the Russian Revolution (1917) had a deep and lasting impact on Indian youth. Many of them grew disillusioned with Gandhian methods of non-violence and moderate reforms and turned to the revolutionary message of socialism and communism for guidance.
- N. Roy became the first Indian to be elected to the leadership of the Communist International (Comintern), paving the way for global recognition of Indian communists.
- In 1924, prominent leaders like Muzaffar Ahmad and A. Dange were arrested and tried under the Kanpur Conspiracy Case for promoting communist activities.
- Following this, the Communist Party of India (CPI) was formally established in 1925, although it operated underground due to official repression.
Awakening of the Indian Youth
The 1920s witnessed an awakening among the youth, who actively participated in youth leagues and student conferences across the country. One of the earliest and most influential events was the All-Bengal Students’ Conference held in August 1928 under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru.
The youth were increasingly drawn towards radical ideologies that called for social, economic, and political transformation of Indian society.
Socialist Influence on Workers and Peasants
A number of worker and peasant organisations emerged, influenced by Marxist and socialist thought. These groups remained closely aligned with the nationalist movement, participating in both political protests and class-based struggles.
Trade Union Movement
The decade saw the rapid growth of trade unionism under the leadership of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC). The Communists played a prominent role in organising labour strikes, such as:
- The Kharagpur Railway Workshop Strikes (1927)
- The massive Bombay Textile Workers’ Strike (April–October 1928), spearheaded by the Girni Kamgar Union
- The Jamshedpur Tata Iron and Steel Works Strike (1928), which was resolved with the intervention of Subhas Chandra Bose
Peasant Uprisings
The peasants were also mobilised during this period:
- In Uttar Pradesh, tenants agitated for revisions in tenancy laws, lower rents, protection from eviction, and relief from indebtedness.
- In Gujarat, peasants protested land revenue hikes. The Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel resulted in a successful No-Tax Campaign, compelling the government to roll back revenue hikes.
Revolutionary Nationalism: Revival After 1922
The abrupt withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922 created a vacuum in Indian politics. This sudden suspension deeply disillusioned many enthusiastic and idealistic youth, who had committed themselves wholeheartedly to the national cause. They began to lose faith in non-violent, constitutional methods of struggle and started exploring more radical alternatives to achieve independence.
Resurgence of Revolutionary Activities
While revolutionary nationalism had been severely repressed during World War I, by the early 1920s, the British government, aiming to project goodwill in the wake of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, released several imprisoned revolutionaries. However, their return to political activism coincided with a deepening sense of discontent due to the failure of non-violent mass struggles. The emerging vacuum of leadership and dissatisfaction with Gandhian politics triggered a resurgence of armed revolutionary movements.
Two Major Epicentres of Revolutionary Nationalism
1. Northern and Central India – Hindustan Republican Association (HRA)
In October 1924, revolutionary nationalists under Sachindranath Sanyal, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, and Ram Prasad Bismil founded the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) in Kanpur. Their goal was not only to overthrow British rule but also to establish:
- A Federal Republic of the United States of India
- A government based on universal adult suffrage
- The abolition of all forms of exploitation
Kakori Conspiracy (1925)
On 9 August 1925, HRA members, including Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqulla Khan, conducted a daring robbery of a British government treasury aboard a train at Kakori, near Lucknow. A passenger was accidentally killed during the operation, prompting swift and brutal retaliation by the colonial government.
- Seventeen revolutionaries were convicted.
- Four revolutionaries — Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, and Roshan Singh — were hanged.
- The revolutionary poem “Sarfaroshi ki Tamanna”, popularised by Bismil, became a rallying cry across India.
2. Bengal – Yugantar, Anushilan Samiti & Chittagong Group
In Bengal, revolutionary fervour was kept alive by groups like Yugantar and Anushilan Samiti, who had been active since the Swadeshi days. Later, the Chittagong Armoury Raid group emerged under Surya Sen, continuing the tradition of armed insurrection.
These groups were influenced by:
- The Russian Revolution (1917)
- Militant trade union movements
- Rising discontent among urban workers and rural peasants
- Anti-imperialism and Marxist-Leninist ideology
Landmark Revolutionary Actions
Lala Lajpat Rai’s Death & Assassination of Saunders (1927)
- Lala Lajpat Rai succumbed to injuries after a brutal lathi charge during a protest against the Simon Commission in Lahore.
- In retaliation, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Azad assassinated Assistant Superintendent Saunders, mistaking him for James Scott, the officer who had ordered the lathi charge.
Central Legislative Assembly Bombing (1929)
On 8 April 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly:
- The bombs were non-lethal and intended to protest against:
- Public Safety Bill
- Trade Disputes Bill
- Their aim was to “make the deaf hear”, symbolising a call for revolution.
- They surrendered voluntarily to use the courtroom as a platform for spreading socialist and anti-colonial ideology.
Lahore Conspiracy Case and Martyrdom (1931)
Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were tried for the Saunders assassination in what became the Lahore Conspiracy Case.
- They conducted hunger strikes demanding political prisoner status.
- Jatin Das died after a 63-day fast, gaining national attention.
- Despite mass protests, the three were executed on 23 March 1931.
- Bhagat Singh became a legendary national icon, immortalised in songs, literature, and collective memory.
Ideological Evolution of Revolutionary Nationalism
From HRA to HSRA
- The HRA Manifesto (1925) had already envisioned a secular, socialist, and democratic republic.
- It proposed:
- Universal suffrage
- Nationalisation of industries and resources
- Abolition of all systems of exploitation
Embrace of Socialism and Mass Mobilisation
The young leaders of HSRA, particularly Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Bhagwati Charan Vohra, advanced a sophisticated Marxist socialist ideology:
- They rejected individual terrorism and emphasised the need for mass-based movements.
- They advocated for social, political, and economic revolution.
Bhagat Singh wrote:
“Revolution does not necessarily mean violence. By revolution, we mean the ultimate establishment of a just social order.”
In his testament written before execution, he said:
“I am not a terrorist. I once believed in violent methods, but I now know that a true revolution must come from the masses, for the masses.”
Naujawan Bharat Sabha (1926)
- Founded by Bhagat Singh in Lahore, the Sabha aimed to mobilise youth, peasants, and workers.
- It spread political education and revolutionary ideology.
- Collaborated with the Kirti Kisan Party, which focused on peasant welfare and agrarian reform.
- Sohan Singh Josh, a notable peasant leader, served as its President.
Significance of Revolutionary Nationalism (1920s)
- Kept the spirit of resistance alive during phases of constitutional politics.
- Inspired patriotism and sacrifice, especially among the youth.
- Laid the ideological groundwork for socialism and secular nationalism in India.
- Served as a moral counterpoint to both moderate constitutionalism and Gandhian non-violence.
- Bhagat Singh, in particular, became an enduring symbol of fearless patriotism, intellectual activism, and revolutionary idealism.
The 1920s witnessed a vibrant resurgence of revolutionary nationalism that shaped the ideological and political consciousness of the freedom movement. From the Kakori case to Bhagat Singh’s martyrdom, revolutionaries bridged the gap between armed resistance and social transformation.
Their efforts not only rattled British colonial authority but also deeply influenced post-independence debates on socialism, secularism, and nationalism. The ideological maturity of leaders like Bhagat Singh helped move Indian revolutionaries beyond violence, advocating a mass-based, inclusive, and socially just future.
Revolutionary Nationalism in Bengal: Reorganisation and Resistance
Following the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922, Bengal emerged once again as a vibrant centre of revolutionary nationalism. Revolutionary nationalists, disillusioned by the abrupt end of the mass civil disobedience movement, began reorganising their forces, resuming large-scale nationalist propaganda through the press and underground revolutionary activity.
Many of these revolutionaries strategically maintained dual roles—engaging with the Congress while continuing underground armed resistance. This allowed them to capitalise on the Congress’ vast mass base under Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership, especially to influence students, workers, and the youth.
Major Revolutionary Groups in Bengal
During this period, prominent revolutionary groups such as Yugantar and Anushilan Samiti were revived and reorganised. A new and determined group, the Chittagong Revolt Group, also emerged under the dynamic leadership of Surya Sen, popularly known as “Masterda” due to his role as a schoolteacher.
Surya Sen and the Chittagong Armoury Raid
- Surya Sen had been an active participant in the Non-Cooperation Movement and served as the Secretary of the Chittagong District Congress Committee in 1929.
- He successfully inspired and mobilised a large band of young revolutionaries including Anant Singh, Ganesh Ghosh, Loknath Bal, and Ambika Chakravarty.
- In April 1930, under the banner of the Indian Republican Army (Chittagong Branch), these revolutionaries launched a daring raid on the Chittagong armoury. Their objective was to:
- Seize arms and ammunition
- Destroy key communication and transport networks
- Establish a provisional revolutionary government
- During the raid, the Union Jack was brought down and replaced with the Indian National Flag, amidst chants of “Vande Mataram” and “Inquilab Zindabad.”
- Unable to engage in open warfare with superior British forces, they resorted to guerrilla tactics and survived for nearly three years, thanks to massive support from rural communities, including many local Muslims.
Surya Sen was eventually captured on 16 February 1933, tortured, and hanged on 12 January 1934, becoming one of the most revered martyrs of the Indian freedom struggle.
Key Features of the New Revolutionary Phase in Bengal
1. Wider Participation of Women: For the first time, young women not only served as couriers and intelligence carriers but also took up arms alongside male revolutionaries.
2. Collective Insurgency: The focus shifted from isolated assassinations to coordinated group actions aimed at undermining state machinery.
3. Secular and Inclusive Approach: Many revolutionary groups began discarding religious oaths, and members from both Hindu and Muslim communities actively participated.
4. Lack of Socio-Economic Vision: In contrast to Bhagat Singh’s HSRA, Bengal’s revolutionaries often failed to articulate or implement a broader socialist or agrarian reform programme, remaining mostly urban-centric and elite in composition.
Notable Women Revolutionaries of Bengal
Kalpana Dutta
- Participated in the Chittagong armoury raid.
- Arrested in May 1933 and sentenced to life imprisonment; released in 1939.
Santi Ghose and Suniti Chowdhury
- On 14 December 1931, the two 16-year-old schoolgirls assassinated District Magistrate Charles Stevens in Comilla by pretending to offer Christmas gifts.
Bina Das
- Attempted to assassinate Bengal Governor Stanley Jackson during a university convocation in February 1932.
Pritilata Waddedar
- Led a daring attack on the Pahartali European Club, which displayed a sign that read “Dogs and Indians not allowed.”
- Consumed cyanide to avoid arrest after being wounded. She is remembered as “Bengal’s first woman martyr.”
Decline of the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement in the 1930s
The revolutionary nationalist wave gradually lost momentum by the mid-1930s due to a combination of internal and external factors:
1. Rise of Gandhian Non-Violence
- Mahatma Gandhi’s influence grew exponentially, and mainstream nationalism veered toward non-violent civil disobedience.
- Though revolutionaries were admired for their bravery, their methods were not endorsed by the national leadership.
2. Severe Repression by the British
- Arrests, long prison terms, public hangings, and brutal suppression destroyed organisational strength.
- The martyrdoms of Chandrashekhar Azad (1931) and Surya Sen (1934) were major blows.
3. Shift in Ideological Outlook
- Influenced by Bhagat Singh’s socialist writings, many young revolutionaries embraced Marxism and socialism.
- Several revolutionaries joined parties such as the Communist Party of India, Congress Socialist Party, and Revolutionary Socialist Party, or integrated into Gandhian social reform movements.
4. Failure to Mobilise Peasantry
- Unlike HSRA in North India, the revolutionaries in Bengal failed to effectively align themselves with peasant struggles or agrarian issues, limiting their mass base.
While the revolutionaries did not succeed in launching a full-scale armed struggle or mass mobilisation, their contributions remain pivotal to India’s freedom struggle:
- They instilled a sense of pride, courage, and resistance in the hearts of millions.
- Their heroism and sacrifice inspired the youth and fuelled revolutionary sentiment across the nation.
- The actions of Bhagat Singh in the North and Surya Sen in Bengal represent two pillars of revolutionary patriotism, both committed to uprooting British imperialism and seeking a just, equitable, and independent Indian republic.
Unsung Hero:
Sachindranath Sanyal
Sachindranath Sanyal was a towering yet underappreciated figure in India’s freedom struggle. Born into a Bengali family settled in Varanasi, he would go on to become one of the most influential revolutionaries of the early 20th century. A committed nationalist, he played a foundational role in shaping revolutionary ideology and mentoring a generation of young patriots, including Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad.
Early Revolutionary Activities
- In 1907, Sanyal moved to Calcutta and became associated with the Anushilan Samiti, a secret revolutionary society.
- He gained national prominence when, in 1912, he and Rashbehari Bose orchestrated an audacious attack on Viceroy Lord Hardinge during a ceremonial procession in Delhi. The bomb injured the Viceroy and marked a bold declaration of armed resistance.
- In 1915, Sanyal was actively involved in the Ghadar Conspiracy, which aimed to spark a pan-Indian military revolt during World War I. Although the conspiracy failed, Sanyal played a critical role in helping Rashbehari Bose escape to Japan, ensuring the continuation of the revolutionary mission from abroad.
Imprisonment and Literary Contribution
- Following the Ghadar uprising, Sanyal was sentenced to life imprisonment and sent to the notorious Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands in 1915.
- While imprisoned, he authored the influential work ‘Bandi Jeevan’ (A Life of Captivity) in 1922, a deeply introspective and ideological text that inspired future revolutionaries and articulated the moral and philosophical underpinnings of revolutionary nationalism.
- Upon release, Sanyal co-founded the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) in 1924, envisioning a Federal Republic of India based on egalitarian and democratic ideals.
Mentorship and Later Arrest
- Sanyal was a key mentor to young revolutionaries, most notably Chandrashekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh. His writings and organisational efforts laid the foundation for the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).
- He was arrested again in connection with the Kakori Conspiracy Case (1925) and was sentenced once more to the Cellular Jail, becoming one of the very few Indians to be imprisoned twice at Port Blair.
Final Years and World War II
- Released in 1937, Sanyal continued to remain active in the freedom struggle. During World War II, he supported the idea of liberating India with Japanese assistance, a sentiment shared by Subhas Chandra Bose’s INA movement.
- As a result, he was arrested under the Defence of India Act in 1941 and imprisoned again.
- He succumbed to tuberculosis on 7 February 1942, leaving behind a legacy of sacrifice, vision, and uncompromising patriotism.
A Clash of Ideologies: Sanyal vs. Gandhi
- Sanyal famously clashed ideologically with Mahatma Gandhi, rejecting the gradualist and non-violent approach in favour of direct revolutionary action.
- In one notable exchange, Sanyal challenged Gandhi’s strategy, arguing that only forceful resistance could bring about real change.
- Gandhi, in response, reaffirmed his commitment to non-violence, maintaining it was not weakness but a higher moral path.
Legacy
Sachindranath Sanyal remains a pioneering figure in revolutionary nationalism, whose vision for a sovereign, egalitarian India inspired a generation of freedom fighters. Though overshadowed by more mainstream leaders, his contribution to India’s struggle for independence was foundational. His life exemplifies the martyrdom, resilience, and ideological depth that defined the revolutionary movement of the 20th century.
Rajendra Nath Lahiri:
Rajendra Nath Lahiri, a brilliant revolutionary and scholar, was the chief strategist behind the Kakori train robbery (1925) and also played a key role in the Dakshineswar bombing.
- Lahiri was originally scheduled to be executed on 19 December 1927, alongside Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, and Roshan Singh.
- However, fearing a potential jailbreak by revolutionaries, the British authorities advanced his execution by two days, hanging him on 17 December 1927.
- This marked a rare and grim precedent in the history of capital punishment in India—executing a convict before the officially stated date.
Bhagwati Charan Vohra:
Bhagwati Charan Vohra, an intellectual revolutionary and a key member of the HSRA, was deeply committed to the cause of armed resistance.
- In 1929, he rented a house in Lahore, transforming it into a covert bomb-manufacturing facility.
- On 23 December 1929, Vohra executed a daring bomb attack on Viceroy Lord Irwin’s train on the Delhi-Agra railway line. Although the Viceroy survived, the act sent a clear message to the British establishment.
- In response to Gandhi’s critique of revolutionary violence in his article “The Cult of the Bomb,” Vohra (in consultation with Chandrashekhar Azad) authored a powerful rebuttal titled “The Philosophy of the Bomb”, defending the revolutionary path as a legitimate tool against imperialism.
- Tragically, Vohra was killed while testing a bomb on the banks of the Ravi River, as part of a planned operation to free Bhagat Singh from jail.
Durgawati Devi (Durga Bhabhi):
Durgawati Devi, widely known as Durga Bhabhi, was one of the most formidable women in the revolutionary movement and a member of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha.
- Married to Bhagwati Charan Vohra, she earned the affectionate title “Bhabhi” among HSRA members.
- She helped operate a secret bomb-making unit in Delhi, cleverly disguised as ‘Himalayan Toilets’.
- Durga Bhabhi played a key role in Bhagat Singh’s escape from Lahore after the assassination of Saunders in 1928. She disguised herself as Singh’s wife, and together with Rajguru (posing as a servant), they travelled to Calcutta undetected.
- Later, she attempted to assassinate Lord Hailey, the former Governor of Punjab and then Governor of UP. While Hailey survived, several of his aides were killed.
- She was eventually arrested and imprisoned for three years, but her legacy continues to inspire generations of Indian women.
Manmath Nath Gupta:
Manmath Nath Gupta (1908–2000) was both a revolutionary and a historian of the Indian independence movement.
- At just 13 years old, he joined the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1921.
- A member of the Hindustan Republican Association, he took part in the Kakori train robbery in 1925 alongside other revolutionaries.
- He later transitioned into writing, authoring several seminal works such as “Bhartiya Krantikari Andolan Ka Itihas” (History of the Indian Revolutionary Movement), offering a revolutionary’s perspective on the freedom struggle.
- Gupta also served as editor of the Hindi literary magazine ‘Aajkal,’ contributing richly to Indian literature and political thought.
Legacy of These Revolutionaries
These revolutionaries represent the unsung spine of the freedom movement, whose fiery patriotism and unmatched courage remain etched in the annals of Indian history. Their sacrifices remind us that the fight for independence was not solely waged in political halls or negotiation tables—but also in cellular jails, secret bomb factories, and underground resistance networks.