The Marathas
In the first half of the 17th century, the Deccan region of India witnessed the rise of the Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar and the Adilshahi of Bijapur. These sultanates held sway over much of Maharashtra, and several notable Maratha sardars (chieftains) served in their courts. These sardars held jagirs (land grants) in the remote and rugged Sahyadri mountain ranges, where they gradually built regional influence.
One such notable sardar was Shahaji Raje Bhosale, a prominent figure in the Nizamshahi kingdom. After its decline, he joined the Adilshahi court as a Mansabdar. Shahaji Raje was among the earliest visionaries of a sovereign Maratha state—an idea that was eventually realised and institutionalised by his son, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, who founded the concept of Swarajya (self-rule) in the Mawal region of Maharashtra.
Rise of Regional Politics and States
The emergence of regional powers in India during the decline of the Mughal Empire created a new political landscape, and among the most formidable of these regional powers were the Marathas. The Marathas had long held influential administrative and military positions in the Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar, which provided them with firsthand experience in governance and warfare. This foundation enabled them to later establish a powerful and organised state of their own.
The spread of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra, led by saints such as Tukaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit, and Eknath, fostered a strong sense of social unity and spiritual awakening among the Marathas. However, it was Shahaji Bhonsle and his son Shivaji Maharaj who provided the much-needed political unity that galvanized the Maratha people. Capitalizing on the fragmentation of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas launched a northward expansion, eventually conquering large parts of Malwa, Gujarat, and Bundelkhand, and posing a formidable challenge to Mughal supremacy.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1630–1680)
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj stands as one of the most revered figures in Indian history. He was the founder of the Maratha Empire and a pioneer in establishing an independent and sovereign state in Maharashtra, grounded in justice, administrative efficiency, and religious tolerance. His concept of Swaraj (self-rule) laid a new foundation for modern Indian politics, eventually evolving into an all-India movement for self-governance.
Born on 19 February 1630 at Shivneri Fort near Junnar in Pune district, Shivaji was the son of Shahaji Bhonsle, a prominent Maratha sardar in the Deccan, and Jijabai, daughter of Lakhuji Jadhavrao. At the time, Maharashtra was divided under the control of the Nizamshahis of Ahmednagar and the Adilshahis of Bijapur.
Shivaji vs. Afzal Khan (1659)
In 1659, the Sultan of Bijapur dispatched Afzal Khan, a powerful general, with an army of 20,000 men to subdue Shivaji. Using a clever strategy, Shivaji lured Afzal Khan into the treacherous terrain of the Sahyadri hills. Pretending to negotiate peace, Shivaji met him at Pratapgad Fort, where he killed Afzal Khan in self-defence during a supposed peace meeting. His pre-positioned troops then launched a surprise attack and routed the Bijapuri army, instantly elevating Shivaji’s stature as a formidable military leader.
Conflict with Siddi Jauhar
Following Afzal Khan’s defeat, Bijapur sent Siddi Jauhar to contain Shivaji. Siddi Jauhar besieged the Fort of Panhala, cutting off escape routes. Shiva Kashid, a devoted servant of Swarajya, disguised himself as Shivaji and sacrificed his life, enabling the real Shivaji to escape. Baji Prabhu Deshpande, a loyal commander, held off Siddi’s forces at Ghodkhind, ensuring Shivaji’s safe arrival at Vishalgad, before sacrificing his life.
Clashes with the Mughals
To counter Shivaji’s growing influence, Emperor Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan, his maternal uncle, to the Deccan. In a daring midnight raid, Shivaji stormed the Lal Mahal in Pune, injured Shaista Khan and killed his son, compelling the Mughals to retreat. In 1664, he plundered the port city of Surat, a key Mughal trade centre.
Angered, Aurangzeb sent his best general, Mirza Raja Jai Singh, with an army of over 120,000 men. Shivaji, assessing the situation wisely, signed the Treaty of Purandar (1665), agreeing to:
- Surrender 23 forts out of 35.
- Pay an annual tribute of one lakh huns.
- Secure a mansab of 5000 for his son Sambhaji.
Agra Incident and Dramatic Escape (1666)
As part of the treaty, Shivaji and his son travelled to Aurangzeb’s court in Agra. There, they were placed under house arrest. Using his wit, Shivaji feigned illness and began sending out large baskets of sweets to distribute among the poor. On 17 August 1666, he and Sambhaji escaped in the baskets, one of the most daring escapes in Indian history. Upon his return, Shivaji swiftly recaptured lost forts, restructured his administration, and revived Maratha power.
Naval Innovations and Religious Tolerance
Shivaji was the first Indian ruler to build a strong naval fleet, using sea power for both trade and defence. He was deeply religious but respected all faiths, including Muslims and Christians, and ensured the protection of their places of worship. His army included Muslim officers, and he allowed forcibly converted Hindus to return to their faith, breaking with prevailing norms.
Coronation and Later Years
In 1674, Shivaji was formally coronated as Chhatrapati at Raigad Fort, establishing a sovereign Hindu kingdom. He ruled for six years through the Ashta Pradhan Mandal (Council of Eight Ministers). His notable southern campaign formed alliances with the Deccan Sultanates to prevent further Mughal expansion.
Despite domestic strife and the defection of his elder son Sambhaji to the Mughals for a brief time, Shivaji continued to defend his kingdom with vigour. He died after a brief illness on April 3, 1680, in Rajgad, the stronghold he had fortified as his capital.
Legacy
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj is remembered not only as a brilliant warrior and strategist but also as a visionary leader who revived the fortunes of the Maratha people. In an age marred by religious oppression, he stood out as a beacon of religious tolerance, efficient governance, and cultural pride. His creation of a self-reliant Maratha state reshaped the political landscape of India and sowed the seeds of national consciousness that inspired future freedom movements.
Battle | Year | Location | Parties Involved |
Battle of Pratapgad | 1659 | Fort Pratapgad, near Satara, Maharashtra | Shivaji Maharaj vs. Afzal Khan (Adilshahi General) |
Battle of Pavan Khind | 1660 | Near Fort Vishalgad, Kolhapur, Maharashtra | Baji Prabhu Deshpande (Maratha) vs. Siddi Masud (Adilshahi) |
Sacking of Surat | 1664 | Surat, Gujarat | Shivaji Maharaj vs. Inayat Khan (Mughal captain) |
Battle of Purandar | 1665 | Fort Purandar, Maharashtra | Maratha Empire vs. Mughal Empire |
Battle of Sinhagad | 1670 | Fort Sinhagad, near Pune, Maharashtra | Tanaji Malusare (Maratha) vs. Udaybhan Rathod (Mughal, under Jai Singh I) |
Battle of Sangamner | 1679 | Sangamner, Maharashtra | Maratha Empire vs. Mughal Empire (Last battle fought by Shivaji Maharaj) |
Battle of Kalyan | 1682–83 | Kalyan, Maharashtra | Bahadur Khan (Mughal) defeated the Maratha Army |
Shivaji’s Administration
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was not only a brilliant military strategist and fearless warrior but also an exceptional statesman and visionary administrator. He laid the foundation of a well-structured and efficient administrative system that sustained the Maratha state, known as Swarajya or Mulk-e-Kadim, for decades after his passing. His administrative model was influenced by both Mughal and Deccani systems but was uniquely tailored to suit local conditions and Maratha ethos.
Central Administration
At the core of Shivaji’s governance was the king himself, who was the supreme authority and focal point of power. He was assisted by an advisory council of eight ministers, collectively known as the Ashtapradhan Mandal. Each minister headed a distinct department and was directly accountable to the king. Importantly, these offices were neither hereditary nor permanent, and the officials were subject to transfers to prevent corruption and ensure efficiency.
The members of the Ashtapradhan included:
Title | Position Name | Responsibilities |
Prime Minister | Peshwa (Pant Pradhan) | Head of finance and general administration |
Commander-in-Chief | Sar-i-Naubat (Senapati) | Supreme commander of the military |
Accountant General | Amatya (Majumdar) | Oversaw revenue collection, accounts, and state expenditure |
Intelligence Chief | Waqenavis | Managed intelligence, policing, postal services, household affairs, and archives |
General Secretary | Sachiv (Chitnis/Surnavis) | Handled official correspondence and documentation |
Foreign Minister | Sumant (Dabir) | Managed diplomatic relations and court ceremonies |
Chief Justice | Nyayadhish | Headed judicial matters and ensured justice |
Religious Affairs | Panditrao | Oversaw religious institutions, charities, and endowments
|
All Ashtapradhans, except the Panditrao and Nyayadhish, were expected to participate in military campaigns.
Each Ashtapradhan was supported by a team of eight assistants, including:
- Diwan
- Majumdar
- Fadnis – Responded to letters from fort commanders.
- Sabnis
- Karkhanis – Managed royal stores.
- Chitnis – Handled diplomatic correspondence.
- Jamadar
- Potnis – Managed income and expenditure of the royal treasury.
Shivaji’s Provincial and Local Administration
Shivaji adopted and improved upon the existing Deccani and Mughal systems of provincial governance. He reorganised and renamed the provinces, which were referred to as Prants. Each Prant was governed by a Subedar, whose activities were supervised by a Sarsubedar. Below Prants were Tarfs, each headed by a Havaldar. At the grassroots level, the smallest administrative unit was the Mauza or village.
- Faujdar: Police chief in rural areas.
- Kotwal: Police chief in urban areas.
Shivaji appointed Kamvishdars, who were often performance-based Brahmin elites, to man the bureaucracy. These officials handled tax assessment, legal disputes, and reporting on local affairs. Their wide-ranging powers formed the basis of the future British District Collector’s role.
Shivaji’s Revenue Administration
Shivaji’s revenue system was primarily inspired by the models of the Mughals and the Ahmadnagar Sultanate’s Malik Ambar. Key features included:
- Land measured using ‘lathi’ (measuring rod).
- Classification of land: Paddy fields, garden lands, and hilly tracts.
- Shivaji curtailed the powers of Deshmukhs and Kulkarnis and appointed his own loyal revenue officers called Karkuns.
- Revenue farming was discouraged, and fair assessment was promoted.
- Revenue records were maintained in a special script known as Modi script.
Two significant sources of revenue were:
- Chauth – One-fourth of the revenue collected from territories outside Maratha control.
- Sardeshmukhi – An additional 10% levy, claimed in the name of the Sardeshmukh, or chief headman of the region.
Shivaji’s Military Administration
Shivaji was a military genius, and his well-organised army was instrumental in the success of the Maratha state. The standing army, known as Paga, consisted of around 30,000 to 40,000 cavalrymen.
- Havaldars: Supervised cavalry units.
- Naiks: Lowest-ranking cavalry leaders.
- State-owned horses were mandatory, ensuring control and discipline.
Cavalry was divided into two categories:
- Bargirs – Supplied and paid by the state.
- Silahdars – Maintained by individual nobles.
The Maratha infantry was swift and agile, often comprised of Mavli foot soldiers, known for their resilience and effectiveness in guerrilla warfare. Peasants served as part-time soldiers—tilling fields for eight months and serving in the army for four.
Shivaji also introduced innovative weapons like the Bagh Naka (Tiger Claw), famously used against Afzal Khan.
Shivaji’s Naval Administration
Recognising the importance of maritime dominance, Shivaji established one of the first modern Indian navies to safeguard coastal territories and trade routes.
- The navy consisted of around 400 ships, including Gurab, Galbat, and Pal.
- The navy served defensive and commercial purposes, protecting merchant ships, ports, and ensuring steady customs revenues.
Fort Administration
By the end of his reign, Shivaji had command over approximately 240 forts. These forts played a pivotal role in Maratha military strategy. To prevent treachery and ensure accountability, each fort was managed by a committee of three officers of equal rank:
- Sabnis
- Kardadar
- Sar-i-Naubat
This tripartite administration ensured mutual checks and balances and safeguarded against corruption.
Shivaji Maharaj’s administration was marked by innovation, decentralisation, and efficiency. It laid the foundations for the later Maratha expansion and left a lasting legacy in Indian governance. His ability to combine military strength with effective civil administration made him not only a conqueror but also a nation-builder of enduring influence.
Year | Event |
1630 | Shivaji was born in the hill fort of Shivner. |
1643–47 | Captured the forts of Kondana, Torana, and Raigarh. |
1647 | Dadaji Khondev, Shivaji’s guardian, passed away. |
1656 | Conquered Javli from Chandra Rao More. |
1657 | Conflict began with the Mughals due to Shivaji’s raids into Ahmednagar. |
1659 | Afzal Khan of Bijapur was killed by Shivaji in a strategic encounter. |
1660 | Shaista Khan, Mughal governor, occupied Pune. |
1663 | Shivaji attacked Shaista Khan’s harem in Pune and wounded him. |
1664 | Shivaji raided and looted Surat for the first time. |
1665 | Treaty of Purandar was signed after Jai Singh besieged Purandar fort. |
1666 | Shivaji made a daring escape from Agra, where he was held captive. |
1670 | Shivaji raided Surat for the second time. |
1674 | Coronation at Raigarh – Shivaji assumed the title Chhatrapati. |
1676 | Launched his southern campaign against Bijapur, Karnataka, and captured Jinji and Vellore. |
1680 | Death of Shivaji Maharaj. |
Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj
Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, the eldest son of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and Saibai Nimbalkar, was born in 1657 at Purandar Fort, located in present-day Maharashtra. From a young age, Sambhaji was immersed in the volatile political climate of the Deccan region, witnessing the complex interplay between the Marathas, Mughals, and the Deccan Sultanates.
At just nine years old, he was sent to the Mughal court of Emperor Aurangzeb as a political hostage, as stipulated in the Treaty of Purandar (1665). Though he briefly joined the Mughal forces under Diler Khan, his unwavering commitment to the ideals of Swarajya (self-rule) led him back to the Maratha side.
Following the demise of his father in 1680, Sambhaji faced strong opposition within his own family. His stepmother Soyarabai, in an attempt to place her son Rajaram on the throne, orchestrated a political conspiracy. Nevertheless, Sambhaji overcame the internal rebellion and was formally crowned as Chhatrapati on July 20, 1680, at Raigad Fort, thus becoming the sovereign of the Maratha Empire.
Major Military Campaigns and Resistance
Battle of Burhanpur (1681)
Soon after his coronation, Sambhaji led a daring and strategic attack on the Mughal trade city of Burhanpur, inflicting a major economic setback on the Mughal Empire.
Siege of Ramsej (1682–1688)
One of the most notable episodes of his reign, the six-year-long defense of Ramsej Fort exemplified Maratha resilience and their unmatched commitment to resistance. Despite repeated attacks, the Marathas successfully held off the Mughals.
Konkan Campaign (1683–1684)
Sambhaji turned his attention to the western coastal belt. In this campaign, he fought against both the Portuguese and the Siddis of Janjira, aiming to secure strategic maritime routes and ports, thereby strengthening the Maratha naval power.
Battle of Wai (1687)
Though the Maratha forces secured a victory, they suffered a grave loss when their esteemed commander, Hambirrao Mohite, was killed in action—a major blow to the military leadership.
Defense Against Aurangzeb
Throughout his reign, Sambhaji consistently thwarted the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb’s efforts to capture the Deccan. His military campaigns successfully prevented Mughal reoccupation of large swathes of North India through the southern front.
Contributions to the Maratha Empire
Expansion and Consolidation
Sambhaji continued Shivaji Maharaj’s expansionist vision by fortifying key positions and extending Maratha influence over vital territories, especially in the Konkan and Karnataka regions.
Naval Development
Recognizing the importance of maritime power, Sambhaji significantly enhanced coastal defenses, modernized the navy, and focused on deterring threats from the Portuguese and Siddis, thus safeguarding commerce and sovereignty.
Religious Devotion and Tolerance
A devout Hindu, Sambhaji stood firmly by his faith, even under intense persecution. He refused to convert to Islam despite repeated offers and threats from Aurangzeb, earning him the honorable title “Dharamveer”. He also showed respect toward other religions, continuing his father’s policy of religious tolerance.
Administrative Excellence
Sambhaji retained and refined the Ashtapradhan system, an administrative model pioneered by Shivaji. This ensured continuity, centralized governance, and efficiency, even during wartime.
Capture, Execution, and Enduring Legacy
Betrayal and Capture at Sangameshwar
In 1689, Sambhaji was betrayed and captured by Mughal forces at Sangameshwar, along with his trusted confidant Kavi Kalash. Both men refused to surrender or convert to Islam, staying true to their values.
Torturous Execution
In a shocking act of brutality, Aurangzeb ordered the public execution of Sambhaji on March 11, 1689, at Tulapur. He was subjected to inhuman torture, but remained defiant to the end—his martyrdom stunned the entire Indian subcontinent.
A Symbol of Defiance
Sambhaji became a symbol of resistance against tyranny. His death inspired widespread outrage and galvanized future Maratha leaders and revolutionaries, planting the seeds for a powerful resurgence.
Foundation for Maratha Resurgence
His sacrifice ignited the collective spirit of Swarajya, ultimately contributing to the Maratha revival that saw the empire rise again to challenge both the Mughals and later the British colonial powers.
The Ashtapradhan System (Council of Eight Ministers) : Sambhaji continued to govern through the Ashtapradhan Mandal, the central administrative council comprising eight senior ministers, each entrusted with distinct responsibilities.
This well-organized bureaucratic system provided a strong framework for centralized governance even during wartime and political turmoil.
Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj remains one of the most iconic and valiant figures in Indian history. His reign, though brief, was marked by unyielding resistance, visionary leadership, and unparalleled sacrifice. A brilliant warrior, administrator, and devout patriot, Sambhaji’s martyrdom galvanized the Maratha spirit, leaving a legacy that continues to inspire millions to this day.
He exemplified what it meant to fight for dharma, justice, and freedom, laying the ideological and political foundation for a united, sovereign, and culturally resilient India.
Rajaram (1689–1700) and Shivaji II (1700–1707)
After the execution of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj’s younger brother, Rajaram, took control of the Maratha resistance in 1689 when Sambhaji was executed by Aurangzeb. Even though he never officially sat on the throne, Rajaram reigned in the name of his nephew, Shahu, and functioned as a symbolical monarch as opposed to an autocratic ruler.
He shifted the Marathas’ headquarters to Gingee (present-day Tamil Nadu) in an endeavour to evade Mughal attacks. But on the capture of Gingee by the Mughals, he shifted base to Vishalgad and later to Satara, passing on royal authority through a Hukumat Panha (formal conferment of royal authority) to Peshwa Ramchandra Pant.
Throughout his rule, the Maratha resistance was maintained alive and active through committed leaders such as Ramchandra Pant Amatya, Prahlad Niraji, and Dhanaji Jadhav, who pursued guerrilla war and interrupted Mughal authority.
Following Rajaram’s death in 1700, his widow Tarabai took charge in the name of their young son, Shivaji II. She proved a tough and able regent, persevering in the resistance against the Mughals.
Meanwhile, Zulfiqar Khan, a Mughal noble, released Shahu (son of Sambhaji), hoping that his release would cause a civil war in the Maratha army. The Mughal plot succeeded to an extent, for the Marathas split in two factions—one under the leadership of Tarabai from Kolhapur and the other under Shahu, claiming Satara.
Although Tarabai sent Dhanaji Jadhav to resist Shahu’s advance, Dhanaji eventually sided with Shahu. With the crucial support of Balaji Vishwanath, a rising Chitpavan Brahmin leader, Shahu decisively defeated Tarabai at the Battle of Khed in 1707. Tarabai withdrew to Kolhapur, marking the emergence of the Royal House of Kolhapur, distinct from the Satara line under Shahu.
Shahu Maharaj (1707–1749)
The rule of Chhatrapati Shahuji Maharaj was a seminal period in Maratha history. It was the era when the Maratha state was officially split into two major lines—Satara (under Shahu) and Kolhapur (under Tarabai and her successors). The political split materialized by 1710, and subsequently, the Treaty of Warna in 1731 officially ratified the split.
Shahu’s reign is especially notable for the emergence of the Peshwa system, where actual power shifted from the monarch to a line of Chitpavan Brahmin Prime Ministers. These Peshwas gradually took control of the central administration, reducing the Bhonsles to ceremonial figureheads.
The most influential of the Peshwas was Balaji Vishwanath, who had played an important role in getting Shahu victory over Tarabai. His leadership saw the establishment of Shahu’s authority and his diplomatic alliances.
In 1719, Shahu extended support to the Sayyid Brothers, helping them depose the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar. In return, the Marathas secured imperial recognition, and Shahu’s mother was released from Mughal custody. Soon after, Shahu formally declared the independence of the Maratha state from Mughal authority, asserting its sovereignty.
The Peshwas
The era of the Peshwas marked a transformative chapter in the history of the Maratha Empire, during which the post of Peshwa (originally a chief ministerial role under the king) evolved into the supreme position of power, making the Peshwas the real rulers while the Chhatrapati became a ceremonial head. This period witnessed the Maratha Empire reaching the zenith of its territorial expansion and influence, followed by a gradual decline due to internal dissent and external challenges.
The Rise of Shahu Maharaj and the Beginnings of Peshwa Supremacy
Shahu Maharaj, the grandson of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, had been held prisoner by Aurangzeb since 1689. Following the Mughal emperor’s death in 1707, Shahu was released. His return to the Deccan sparked a succession conflict with his aunt Tarabai, who was ruling Kolhapur in the name of her son, Shivaji II.
Balaji Vishwanath, a talented diplomat and administrator, played a decisive role in securing the support of powerful Maratha sardars for Shahu. Owing to his loyalty and competence, Shahu appointed him Peshwa in 1713, thereby laying the groundwork for Peshwa supremacy in Maratha politics.
Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720):
During his tenure as Peshwa, Balaji Vishwanath skillfully exploited internal divisions within the Mughal nobility to bolster Maratha power:
- He negotiated with Zulfiqar Khan, who agreed to pay Chauth and Sardeshmukhi (a form of tax tribute) for the Deccan.
- He allied with the powerful Saiyid Brothers, aiding them in the overthrow of Emperor Farrukh Siyar.
In return, the Marathas were granted:
- Recognition of Swarajya – all territories formerly held by Shivaji.
- Rights to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from six Mughal provinces in the Deccan.
To streamline revenue collection and administration:
- Balaji assigned specific territories to various Maratha sardars.
- A fixed share of revenues (including Sardeshmukhi and 34% of Chauth) was designated for King Shahu, effectively making the king dependent on the sardars and reducing his central authority.
This system:
- Empowered the Peshwas through patronage and control over revenue.
- Encouraged sardars to maintain their own private armies.
However, it also created a fragmented power structure, eventually undermining the unity of the Maratha Empire.
Baji Rao I (1720–1740):
At the young age of 20, Baji Rao I, son of Balaji Vishwanath, succeeded as Peshwa. He is widely regarded as the greatest Maratha military commander after Shivaji, renowned for his mastery of guerrilla warfare and rapid cavalry movements.
Key Achievements:
- Battle of Palkhed (1728): Defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad, securing Maratha rights to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
- Battle of Bhopal (1737): Triumphed over combined Mughal and Nizam forces, gaining control over Malwa.
- Portuguese Campaigns: His brother, Chimaji Appa, defeated the Portuguese and captured Bassein and Salsette.
By the time of his death in 1740, Baji Rao had extended Maratha power across Malwa, Gujarat, and Bundelkhand. However, he neglected to institute effective civil administration in the newly annexed territories, sowing seeds for future instability.
Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb, 1740–1761):
Balaji Baji Rao, also known as Nana Saheb, inherited a vast empire. Under him, the Maratha power reached its greatest territorial extent:
- Shifted the capital to Poona.
- East: Secured Orissa from Alivardi Khan in 1751.
- South: Forced Mysore and other regional powers to pay tribute; defeated the Nizam at Udgir (1760), gaining territories worth Rs. 62 lakhs annually.
- North: Became kingmakers at the Mughal court. A treaty in 1752 granted the Marathas:
- Rs. 50 lakhs
- Chauth of Punjab, Sindh, Multan, Rajputana, and Rohilkhand
- Governorship of Ajmer and Agra
In 1758, Raghunath Rao captured Delhi and Punjab, cementing Maratha dominance in the north.
The Third Battle of Panipat (1761):
Fearing Maratha ascendancy, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India in 1759. He allied with Najib-ud-Daulah and Shuja-ud-Daulah. The Marathas, failing to secure northern allies, faced the enemy alone.
- On 14 January 1761, at Panipat, the Marathas suffered a crushing defeat.
- 28,000 soldiers perished, including Sadashiv Rao Bhau and Vishwas Rao.
- The loss:
- Decimated the elite Maratha army
- Shattered their political prestige
- Opened the path for the British East India Company to rise
Despite his victory, Abdali could not hold his conquests and never returned to India. The Maratha resistance was so fierce that Punjab was eventually reclaimed.
Madhav Rao I (1761–1772):
After Panipat, Madhav Rao I, aged only 17, ascended as Peshwa. His reign is considered a period of Maratha resurgence:
- Defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad
- Successfully checked Haidar Ali of Mysore (1764–65, 1769–72)
- Reinstated Shah Alam II as emperor under Maratha protection
His untimely death due to tuberculosis in 1772 led to a power vacuum.
Nana Phadnavis and Mahadji Sindhia:
During the minority of Sawai Madhav Rao II, the son of the assassinated Narayan Rao, the administration was managed by Nana Phadnavis, a seasoned statesman, and Mahadji Sindhia, a powerful northern Maratha leader.
Mahadji Sindhia:
- Restored Maratha control in the north
- Controlled Delhi and Agra on behalf of the emperor
- Was conferred the title Naib-i-Munaib (Emperor’s Deputy)
Nana Phadnavis:
- Governed from Poona
- Maintained southern dominance
Their efforts stabilized the empire until their deaths—Mahadji in 1794, and Nana in 1800.
Battle of Kharda (1795):
The Battle of Kharda witnessed a rare display of unity among Maratha chiefs (Peshwa, Sindhia, Holkar, Bhonsle, Gaekwad), who defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad:
- The Nizam, besieged at Kharda Fort, surrendered after cannon bombardment.
- He ceded large territories, including Daulatabad Fort.
- Alarmed, the Nizam signed the Subsidiary Alliance with the British in 1798, signaling British encroachment.
Baji Rao II (1795–1818):
Baji Rao II, son of Raghunath Rao, ascended after Sawai Madhav Rao. He lacked leadership and administrative capabilities:
- Failed to unite the Maratha confederacy
- Suffered from internal factionalism
- Sought British support, leading to the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars
By 1818, the Maratha Empire had crumbled, and British rule was firmly entrenched in India.
Legacy of the Peshwa Era
The Peshwa period represents both the apex and downfall of Maratha power. Visionary leaders like Balaji Vishwanath, Baji Rao I, and Madhav Rao I brought prestige, expansion, and military success to the Maratha Empire.
However, the overemphasis on military conquests, lack of consolidated administrative reform, internal rivalries, and regionalism weakened the empire from within.
The Third Battle of Panipat marked a turning point—not just for the Marathas, but for India’s political landscape. It cleared the way for British supremacy, ending the era of native dynasties dominating Indian politics.
The Marathas’ valiant efforts to resist foreign domination remain a powerful symbol of Indian resilience, courage, and sacrifice in the face of adversity.
The Maratha Confederacy (1720–1818)
The Maratha Confederacy was a dynamic and powerful military-political alliance that arose in the early 18th century following the decline of central authority under the Chhatrapati. As the Peshwas assumed real power from their base in Poona (Pune), the Maratha Empire evolved into a confederate structure. This era witnessed both the apex of Maratha imperial ambitions and their eventual downfall at the hands of the British East India Company.
Key Components of the Maratha Confederacy
1. Peshwas of Poona (Pune)
The Peshwas, initially appointed as chief ministers under the Chhatrapati, eventually became the de facto rulers of the Maratha state. Operating from Poona, they directed imperial expansion, foreign diplomacy, and major military campaigns. The Peshwa era marked a significant shift from monarchic to bureaucratic dominance within the Maratha polity.
2. Gaikwads of Baroda
The Gaikwads emerged as influential players in western India around 1720, initially subordinate to the Bhonsles and the powerful Dabhade family.
- Their political standing improved significantly after the death of Shahu, coinciding with the rise of Peshwa authority.
- By the 1750s, the Peshwas recognized the Gaikwads’ rights to a major portion of Gujarat’s revenues, following which they established their capital at Baroda.
- Notable rulers: Damaji Gaikwad (1768) and Fateh Singh Gaikwad (1771–89).
- Fateh Singh’s decision to negotiate with the British East India Company marked the beginning of British interference in Gaikwad affairs.
- By 1800, the British, not the Peshwas, mediated succession disputes, reducing the Gaikwads to subordinate allies of the colonial power.
3. Holkars of Indore
Originally of modest political influence, the Holkars rose swiftly under the leadership of Malhar Rao Holkar by the 1730s.
- Malhar Rao obtained significant shares in the Chauth collections from Malwa, Khandesh, and eastern Gujarat.
- He consolidated power around Indore and controlled key commercial hubs like Burhanpur.
- His daughter-in-law, Ahilyabai Holkar, governed from 1765 to 1794, and is remembered for her administrative excellence and cultural patronage, which elevated the Holkar principality to new heights.
4. Bhonsles of Nagpur
The Bhonsles remained nominally subordinate to the Satara Chhatrapati but exercised considerable autonomy.
- Raghuji Bhonsle (1727–1755) was the most prominent ruler of this line.
- He spearheaded Maratha incursions into Bengal and Bihar and successfully occupied Orissa after defeating Nawab Alivardi Khan.
- The Bhonsles expanded Maratha influence deep into eastern India, establishing a significant power base at Nagpur.
5. Scindias of Gwalior
Following the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Scindias emerged as a dominant force in northern India.
- Initially headquartered at Ujjain, they later shifted their capital to Gwalior.
- Under Mahadji Scindia (1761–94):
- Created a modern European-style army with both Hindu and Muslim soldiers.
- Employed a number of French officers and gunners.
- Established ordnance factories near Agra.
- Exercised control over Delhi and Agra on behalf of the Marathas.
- Secured the post of Naib-i-Munaib (Deputy to the Mughal Emperor).
- Relations with Nana Phadnavis and the Holkars were strained, limiting unified action.
- His successor, Daulat Rao Scindia, lacked Mahadji’s leadership and suffered defeats against the British, ceding large tracts of territory.
Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818)
The Anglo-Maratha Wars were a series of three significant military confrontations between the British East India Company and the Maratha Confederacy, ultimately leading to the collapse of Maratha sovereignty.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782)
- Initiated by British support for Raghunath Rao, a claimant to the Peshwa throne.
- Treaty of Surat (1775): Recognized Raghunath Rao’s claims but was rejected by the Calcutta Council.
- Nana Phadnavis retaliated by granting the French a port, provoking British aggression.
- At Wadgaon (1779), British forces were defeated and surrendered.
- Treaty of Wadgaon: Returned territories to the Marathas.
- Treaty of Salbai (1782): Concluded hostilities and restored the status quo.
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805)
- Triggered by the Treaty of Bassein (1802) signed by Peshwa Baji Rao II after his defeat by the Holkars.
- Scindias and Bhonsles opposed the treaty and challenged British interference.
- British victories led to the signing of:
- Treaty of Deogaon (1803)
- Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon (1803)
- Treaty of Rajghat (1805)
- These treaties stripped the Marathas of vast territories, eroding their military strength.
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818)
Causes:
- Growing Maratha resentment against British control.
- British military operations against Pindari raiders within Maratha-held territories.
- The desire to reclaim lost prestige and sovereignty.
Outcomes:
- Crushing defeat of the Marathas.
- Annexation of remaining Maratha territories by the British.
- Complete dismantling of the Maratha Confederacy.
- India came fully under the British East India Company’s rule.
Decline of the Marathas
- Post-Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire disintegrated rapidly, allowing the Marathas to rise as the most dominant regional force in India.
- Their influence extended from Punjab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, and from Gujarat to Bengal.
- The Mughal Emperor became a pensioner of the Marathas, illustrating their dominance.
- Yet, they failed to establish a centralized pan-Indian empire.
- Reasons for decline:
- Lack of political unity and coordination among Maratha chiefs.
- Internal power struggles and regional rivalries.
- Failure to modernize administration and military structure.
- Underestimation of British diplomatic and military power.
- Ultimately, it was not the Mughals but the Marathas from whom the British inherited control over India.
The Marathas were on the verge of establishing an all-India empire in the aftermath of the Mughal decline. With visionary leadership, military innovation, and territorial expansion, they became one of the most formidable indigenous powers in Indian history. However, internal discord, lack of cohesive governance, and military setbacks in the Anglo-Maratha Wars culminated in their collapse.
The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–18) was the final blow that ended Maratha political supremacy and heralded the onset of British colonial dominance in India. Yet, their legacy endures as a symbol of indigenous resistance and administrative ingenuity in the face of foreign rule.
End of Maratha Rule
The downfall of the Maratha Empire was marked by British diplomatic cunning and military superiority, especially during the Second (1803–1805) and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars (1817–1819). The British systematically divided the Maratha sardars, defeating them one by one in isolated conflicts.
While several Maratha princely states were allowed to exist as subsidiary allies under British suzerainty, the House of the Peshwas was formally abolished. With this, the long-cherished Maratha ambition to succeed the Mughals and establish a pan-Indian empire ultimately ended in failure.