Mughal Administration

    The administrative structure of the Mughal Empire was one of the most sophisticated systems of governance in pre-modern India. It was built on centralized authority and was designed to effectively manage the vast territories under Mughal control. The empire was divided into multiple levels of territorial administration, each with distinct responsibilities and administrative officers.

Territorial Division

     The empire was initially divided into 15 Subas (provinces) during Akbar’s reign, which later expanded to 22 Subas under Aurangzeb. Each Suba was placed under the supervision of two primary officials:

• • Subedar or Nizam (in charge of law and order and military affairs)
  • Diwan (responsible for revenue collection and financial administration)
    Each Suba was further divided into Sarkars, administered by the Fauzdar (administrative and military officer) and Amil (revenue officer).
    • • Sarkars were subdivided into Parganas, which comprised multiple Gramas (villages).

At the village level:

• • A Muqaddam acted as the village headman.
  • A Patwari maintained records and accounts of the village lands and revenue.

Classification of Land

The Mughal administration categorized land into different types based on its revenue use:

1. 1. Khalisah (Crown Land): The revenue from this land went directly to the imperial treasury.
   2. Jagir: These were land grants given to Jagirdars, typically nobles or officers, in lieu of their service. The revenue from these lands was collected by the Jagirdars for their personal maintenance.
   3. Inam: Lands granted as a gift, usually for religious or charitable purposes.

Land Revenue Administration

• • The primary source of income for the Mughal Empire was land revenue collected from agricultural produce.
    • •  Revenue was typically collected through intermediaries, known as zamindars, who ranged from powerful chieftains to local village headmen.
      •  In many regions, zamindars wielded substantial power, often becoming hereditary rulers or military allies. Their exploitation, along with oppressive Mughal revenue policies, sometimes led to zamindar-peasant revolts, especially from the late 17th century onwards, undermining the stability of the Empire.

Zabt System

• • Akbar, with the assistance of his finance minister Raja Todar Mal, introduced the Zabt system of revenue assessment.
  • A comprehensive 10-year survey (1570–1580) was conducted to calculate average yields, crop prices, and cultivated areas.
    Based on this data, tax rates for individual crops were fixed and payable in cash.
  • Each province was divided into revenue circles, each with its own schedule of rates.
  • The Zabt system was applicable only in areas where land could be surveyed and detailed records maintained, such as in northern India. It was not feasible in regions like Bengal and Gujarat.

Mansabdari System

• • The Mansabdari system, introduced by Akbar, was a centralized ranking system used to determine the status, salary, and military responsibilities of officials.
  • The word ‘Mansab’ means rank or position.
  • Every officer, whether civil or military, was assigned a Mansab, ranging from 10 to 5000, later extended up to 7000 under Akbar.
  • Two premier nobles, Raja Man Singh and Mirza Aziz Koka, were awarded the highest rank of 7000.

Components of Mansab

Each Mansab had two components:

1. 1. Zat: It determined the personal status and salary of the Mansabdar. The higher the zat, the greater the respect and income.
   2. Sawar: It indicated the number of cavalrymen the Mansabdar was required to maintain.

Three Categories of Mansabdars

Mansabdars were classified based on their military obligations:

1. 1. First Category: Required to maintain equal number of Sawars as their Zat rank.
   2. Second Category: Required to maintain half or more Sawars as compared to their Zat.
   3. Third Category: Required to maintain less than half the number of Sawars as their Zat.

Titles and Nomenclature

• • Mansabdars: Ranks below 500 Zat
  • Amirs: Ranks from 500 to 2499 Zat
  • Amir-i-umda or Umda-i-Azam: Ranks 2500 and above Zat
  • Though technically these were categories, the term ‘Mansabdar’ was often used for all ranks.

Jagirdari System and Crisis

• • Salaries of Mansabdars were often paid through land grants or Jagirs. However, these Jagirs were subject to frequent transfers, preventing officials from building local power.

Under Akbar, Jagirs were well-matched to the officer’s salary.

During Aurangzeb’s reign, the system deteriorated:

• • Jagirs were over-assigned, leading to a shortage of available lands.
  • Revenue collected from the jagirs often fell short of the assigned salary.
  • Many Jagirdars exploited peasants during their tenure to maximize income.
    This led to severe hardship for the peasantry and increased corruption and rebellion, especially in the final decades of Mughal rule.

The decline in the efficiency of the Mansabdari and Jagirdari systems ultimately contributed to the disintegration of the central Mughal authority and gave rise to regional powers across India.