Evolution of Education in Colonial India

Overview of British Educational Policy

    The British educational policy in India evolved over more than a century, reflecting shifting colonial priorities. Initially, the British displayed minimal interest in education, focusing primarily on trade and governance. However, over time, education became a tool for consolidating political control, creating a class of Indians familiar with English language, Western sciences, and European values.

     This dualistic policy promoted Western-oriented education while limiting the growth of indigenous and oriental learning systems. The approach came to be known as the Downward Filtration Theory, wherein education would begin with a small, upper-class elite, who in turn would pass knowledge to the masses. This shaped several later initiatives, including the Hunter Commission recommendations.

Early Company Rule & Initial Educational Initiatives (Pre-1813)

       Until the Charter Act of 1813, the East India Company was reluctant to fund education in India. A few early efforts were initiated mainly by individuals:

• • Calcutta Madrasah (1781) – Established by Warren Hastings for the study of Muslim law and related subjects.
  • Sanskrit College, Benaras (1791) – Founded by Jonathan Duncan for the study of Hindu law and philosophy.
  • Fort William College (1800) – Set up by Lord Wellesley to train Company civil servants in Indian languages and customs. Closed in 1802, it still marked an important experiment in officer training.

Charter Act of 1813 – First State Commitment

The Charter Act of 1813 introduced, for the first time, a clause for promoting education in India:

• • Annual Allocation – ₹1 lakh was earmarked for education, though implementation began only in 1823.
  • Raja Rammohan Roy’s Influence – Played a key role in directing funds towards Calcutta College (1817), which provided English education in humanities and sciences.
  • Establishment of three Sanskrit Colleges – in Calcutta, Delhi, and Agra.

Orientalist–Anglicist Controversy

During the early 19th century, a fierce debate emerged over the nature and language of education:

• • Orientalists – Favoured promotion of traditional Indian learning in Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic.
  • Anglicists – Favoured Western curriculum and sciences, with English as the medium.
  • Disagreements even within Anglicists—some supported English medium, others preferred vernacular languages for mass instruction.

Lord Macaulay’s Minute on Education (1835)

• • Declared Indian learning inferior to European knowledge.
  • Education policy officially shifted in favour of Anglicists, making English the medium of higher education.
  • Neglected mass education in favour of elite instruction.
  • Introduced the Downward Filtration Theory, aiming to create a class of people “Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, opinions, morals, and intellect.”

James Thomson’s Village Education (1843–1853)

• • James Thomson, Lieutenant Governor of North-West Provinces, promoted vernacular-based village education.
  • Focused on practical training for roles in the Revenue and Public Works Departments.

Charles Wood’s Despatch (1854) – Magna Carta of English Education

Governor-General: Lord Dalhousie

Key features:

• • Western Curriculum – Emphasis on European sciences, arts, and philosophy.
  • English for higher education; vernacular languages for primary education.
  • Institutional Structure – Primary schools in villages, Anglo-Vernacular high schools at district level, affiliated colleges, and universities.
  • Grants-in-Aid system for private institutions meeting quality standards.

Post-Wood’s Despatch Developments (Late 19th Century)

• • Universities (1857) – Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
  • Bethune School (1849) – J.E.D. Bethune pioneered girls’ education under government grants and inspection.
  • Technical Institutes – Agriculture Institute at Pusa (Bihar), Engineering Institute at Roorkee.
  • Missionary and Indian private initiatives also began expanding educational reach.

Hunter Commission (1882) – Lord Ripon

Objective: Review implementation of Wood’s Despatch.

Recommendations:

• • Dual Track Secondary Education – Literary (for university) and vocational streams.
  • Primary Education – Vernacular medium, practical subjects, encouragement to private efforts.
  • Decentralisation – District and city boards to oversee primary education.
    Impact: Led to expansion of secondary and collegiate education and creation of new universities like Punjab (1882) and Allahabad (1887).

Indian Universities Act (1904)

Based on Raleigh Commission (1902):

• • Greater government control over universities.
  • Funding of ₹5 lakh per annum for higher education.
  • Tighter affiliation rules for private colleges.
  • Criticised by nationalists like Gokhale as a retrograde measure aimed at restricting political dissent.

Government Resolution on Education Policy (1913)

Influenced by Gokhale’s Resolution (1910) and Baroda’s Compulsory Primary Education (1906):

• • Encouraged free primary education for the poor.
  • Promoted private initiatives.
  • Recommended establishing a university in each province.
  • Women’s education to focus on practical curriculum and increased female teachers.

Sadler Commission (1917–1919)

Chair: Michael Sadler

Key Recommendations:

• • 12-year school system before university entry.
  • Separate boards for secondary and intermediate education.
  • University autonomy and diversified curriculum.
    Impact: Led to creation of new universities – Mysore, Patna, Banaras Hindu University, Osmania, Aligarh, Lucknow, Dacca.

Education Under Dyarchy (1919)

• • Responsibility for education transferred to provincial ministries under Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms.

Hartog Committee (1929)

Findings:

• • Criticised wastage and stagnation in primary education.
  • Advocated localised curriculum, teacher training, diversified secondary curriculum, and improved higher education standards.

Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)

• • Initiated by Congress under Zakir Hussain Committee.
  • Inspired by Gandhian Nai Talim.
  • Focused on free compulsory education for 7 years, mother-tongue medium, and skill-based learning.

Sargent Plan (1944)

• • Proposed universal, free, and compulsory education (6–11 years) within 40 years.
  • Recommended vocational high schools, improved university standards, and adult education.
  • Called for creation of an All-India Education Coordination Body.

Significance

   The British introduced modern education but with limited scope, aiming to serve colonial administrative needs. While it helped create an educated middle class that played a key role in the freedom struggle, mass literacy remained neglected until independence.