Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34)
The Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress (December 1929), under the presidency of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, adopted the historic resolution of Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence). Alongside this bold proclamation, it was also resolved that a Civil Disobedience Movement would be launched, the timing and form of which would be determined by the Congress Working Committee (CWC).
Although the session authorised a mass movement, it did not provide specific instructions. This responsibility was later entrusted to Mahatma Gandhi, who was empowered to initiate the movement at his discretion.
Gandhi’s Eleven Demands
On January 25, 1930, the Viceroy’s speech in the Central Legislative Assembly made it evident that the British government had no intention of granting Dominion Status in the near future. In response, on January 31, 1930, Gandhi addressed a letter to Lord Irwin, listing eleven modest but essential demands. These were meant to reflect the immediate needs of the people and expose the injustices of British rule.
Gandhi warned that failure to accept these demands by March 11, 1930 would result in the launch of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The Eleven Demands were:
- Reduction of the rupee-sterling exchange ratio to 1s 4d.
- Fifty percent reduction in land revenue, and placing it under legislative control.
- Abolition of the salt tax and the government’s monopoly on salt production.
- Reduction of military expenditure and civil services salaries by 50%.
- Release of all political prisoners.
- Imposition of protective duties on foreign cloth to safeguard Indian industries.
- Reservation of coastal shipping for Indian companies.
- Total prohibition of intoxicants.
- Reform of the Criminal Investigation Department (CID).
- Passing of the Postal Reservation Bill.
- Issuance of firearm licenses for self-defence to law-abiding citizens.
To some like Jawaharlal Nehru, the demands appeared underwhelming in light of the recent declaration of Complete Independence, but Gandhi saw them as a strategic way to unify diverse sections of Indian society.
Gandhi’s Letter to the Viceroy
On March 2, 1930, Gandhi wrote another letter to Viceroy Irwin, clearly articulating the moral and political justification for civil disobedience. He described British rule as a “curse”, and sought to “convert the British through non-violence”, rather than seek revenge. He also notified the Viceroy that, should the government fail to act, he would begin a non-violent protest by breaking the Salt Law — a move with both economic and symbolic implications.
As expected, no response came from the Viceroy. Thus, the stage was set for one of the most iconic events in India’s freedom struggle.
CWC Meeting at Sabarmati (February 1930)
In February 1930, the Congress Working Committee met at Sabarmati Ashram. It entrusted Gandhi with full authority to initiate the movement and placed the entire Congress organisation at his disposal. This formalised the movement’s launch.
The Dandi March (Salt March) | March 12 – April 6, 1930
The British Salt Law, enacted in 1882, granted the colonial state a monopoly over the manufacture and sale of salt. The tax imposed on salt disproportionately affected the poor, and even natural salt deposits near the sea were destroyed by the state to enforce its monopoly.
Gandhi chose salt as the issue for civil disobedience because:
- It was a basic necessity used by all, especially the poor.
- It represented the unjust economic exploitation by the British.
- Breaking the salt law would unite people across regions and classes.
On March 12, 1930, Gandhi began the Dandi March with 78 chosen satyagrahis from Sabarmati Ashram, marching a distance of 240 miles (~390 km) to Dandi, a coastal village in Gujarat’s Navsari district. The march lasted for 24 days, passing through multiple villages, and thousands joined along the way.
Key figures such as Sarojini Naidu, Dr. Sumant, Abbas Tyabji, and Mithuben Petit joined the movement at Dandi.
On the morning of April 6, 1930, Gandhi broke the Salt Law by collecting salt from the seashore, formally launching the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Significance of the Salt Satyagraha
- The Dandi March became a pan-India symbol of resistance.
- Salt became the entry point for larger civil disobedience campaigns.
- People across India replicated the act by manufacturing and selling illegal salt.
- It sparked mass participation from all sections — women, students, peasants, merchants, and even zamindars.
Parallel Salt Satyagrahas across India
Following the Dandi March, similar Salt Satyagrahas broke out across the country:
- C. Rajagopalachari led a Salt March from Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam in Tamil Nadu.
- K. Kelappan and Mohammed Abdur Rahiman led protests in Kerala.
- Sarojini Naidu led a march to Dharasana Salt Works, which resulted in brutal police repression.
- Satyagrahas were also launched in Bengal, Maharashtra, and Punjab, with notable local leaders taking charge.
Spread of the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34)
Malabar
- Kelappan, leader of the Vaikom Satyagraha, led a procession of 33 satyagrahis from Kozhikode to Payyannur, the southern tip of North Malabar.
- Krishna Pillai joined the Salt March from Kozhikode to Payyannur. When police attacked and seized the national flag, Krishna Pillai and Sharma fought back — Pillai reclaiming the flag and Sharma recovering the flagstaff — refusing to surrender despite heavy opposition.
Tamil Nadu
- The Vedaranyam March (April 1930): Led by Rajagopalachari, the march started from Trichinopoly (Tiruchirappalli) to Vedaranyam on the Tanjore coast to defy the Salt Law.
Andhra
- Military-style sibirams (camps) served as headquarters for the Salt Satyagraha.
- Satyagrahis marched to coastal areas to produce salt in defiance of colonial law.
Orissa
- Gopabandhu Choudhury headed the Civil Disobedience Movement in the province.
- On 6 April 1930, Gopabandhu Choudhury and Acharya Harihar Das led 21 volunteers from Swaraj Ashram, Cuttack, to Inchudi.
- After Gopabandhu’s arrest on 9 April, Acharya Harihar Das continued the mission and, on 13 April, broke the salt law with his followers.
Assam
- The Cunningham Circular by J.R. Cunningham, Director of Public Information, required students to pledge loyalty to the British and renounce anti-government activity.
- Students strongly protested, leading to widespread picketing in schools.
North-Eastern India
- Rani Gaidinliu, at just 13, raised the banner of revolt in response to Gandhi’s call. Arrested in 1932, she was sentenced to life imprisonment and freed only in 1947.
North-West Frontier Province
- Under Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi), the Pathans formed the Khudai Khidmatgars (Servants of God), also called Red Shirts. They pledged non-violence and became a major force in the movement.
- On 23 April 1930, Ghaffar Khan’s arrest triggered massive protests in Peshawar.
- In a notable incident, two platoons of Garhwali soldiers, led by Chandra Singh Garhwali, refused to fire on unarmed protesters — a sign of growing nationalist sentiment within the Indian Army.
Dharasana (Gujarat)
- After Gandhi’s arrest on 5 May 1930, Abbas Tyabji assumed leadership of the Salt Satyagraha and launched the Dharasana Salt Works raid.
- On 21 May 1930, Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib, and Manilal Gandhi led the satyagrahis in the raid.
Sholapur (Maharashtra)
- Gandhi’s arrest triggered a workers’ strike, attacks on liquor shops and police stations, and the establishment of a short-lived parallel government.
Forms of Defiance
The Civil Disobedience Movement saw a nationwide wave of resistance that went far beyond the official Congress program. Ordinary citizens, peasants, workers, students, and professionals all contributed to this unprecedented mass uprising.
- Hartals, demonstrations, and boycotts of foreign goods became common across towns and villages. These actions not only disrupted economic activity but also served as powerful symbols of unity against colonial rule.
- Peasants openly violated colonial forest laws, asserting their right to access and use forest resources that had been unjustly monopolised by the British.
- Factory workers staged strikes in protest of oppressive working conditions and low wages, aligning their struggle with the larger nationalist cause.
- Lawyers in several regions boycotted British courts, refusing to practise under laws imposed by a foreign government.
- Students left government-run schools and colleges, choosing instead to join nationalist educational institutions that promoted the ideals of swaraj.
CWC Directives after Gandhi’s Arrest
Following Mahatma Gandhi’s arrest on 5 May 1930, the Congress Working Committee (CWC) authorised a more aggressive phase of civil disobedience:
- Non-payment of land revenue in Ryotwari areas.
- No-chaukidar-tax campaigns in Zamindari areas to undermine local administrative machinery.
- Mass violation of forest laws in the Central Provinces to challenge the economic exploitation of natural resources.
No-Revenue & No-Rent Campaign (United Provinces)
- Zamindars were urged not to pay revenue to the British government, directly challenging its fiscal authority.
- Tenants were encouraged not to pay rent to zamindars.
- As most zamindars remained loyal to the colonial regime, the campaign evolved into a predominantly no-rent struggle, shifting the burden of protest to the tenants.
Government’s Position in 1930
The British government’s stance throughout 1930 was marked by hesitation followed by repression. Initially unsure whether to allow the movement to fizzle out or to crush it outright, the administration ultimately chose to suppress it with full force:
- Large-scale arrests of leaders and activists.
- Ordinances to curb civil liberties.
- Provincial governments empowered to ban civil disobedience organisations.
Attempts at a Truce
July 1930
- Viceroy Lord Irwin proposed a Round Table Conference and reaffirmed Dominion Status as the eventual goal.
- Senior leaders Tej Bahadur Sapru and M.R. Jayakar attempted to mediate between Congress and the government, but these efforts proved unsuccessful.
August 1930
- Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Motilal Nehru met Congress leaders in Yeravada Jail to explore settlement options.
- Talks collapsed as the British refused to concede the following core demands:
-
- Right to secede from Britain.
- Full national government with control over defence and finance.
- An independent tribunal to adjudicate Britain’s financial claims on India.
Participation of Various Sections
Women
- Initially, Gandhi discouraged active participation by women, believing their role should be more supportive.
- However, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay convinced him otherwise, leading to thousands of women stepping into public political action for the first time.
- Women engaged in picketing liquor and foreign cloth shops, joined processions, and played leadership roles.
- Prominent figures included Kasturba Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Amina Tyabji, Rukmini Lakshmipathy, and Avantikabai Gokhale.
Muslims
Participation was lower than during the Non-Cooperation Movement, but notable in certain regions:
- North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) saw large-scale mobilisation.
- Middle-class Muslims in Bengal played an active role.
- Muslim weaving communities in Bihar, Delhi, and Lucknow also joined the movement.
Urban Intelligentsia
- Support from lawyers, students, and professionals was less enthusiastic compared to earlier phases of nationalism, as many youth gravitated towards revolutionary activities.
Peasants & Industrialists
- Massive peasant mobilisation occurred in rural areas.
- Business groups initially extended considerable support, especially in funding the movement, though this enthusiasm waned over time.
Tribals
- Tribal communities actively participated in the defiance of forest laws, especially in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and the Central Provinces.
Role of Women in the Salt Satyagraha
- 6 April 1930 – At Dandi, Gandhi, accompanied by Sarojini Naidu and Mithuben Petit, broke the Salt Law, signalling open defiance.
- 9 April 1930 – Gandhi collected salt at Bhimrad, further symbolising resistance.
- Following Gandhi’s arrest, Sarojini Naidu led the Dharasana Salt Works raid.
- Leaders like Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay and Avantikabai Gokhale organised simultaneous protests in cities like Bombay, expanding the movement’s reach.
Government’s Response
- Over 90,000 satyagrahis were imprisoned, including almost the entire Congress leadership.
- In South India, repression was especially severe, with people beaten simply for wearing khadi or Gandhi caps.
- The Congress was declared illegal.
- The nationalist press was gagged through stringent censorship.
Gandhi on the World Stage
- The Salt March received widespread international coverage, particularly in the United States and Britain.
- In 1931, Time Magazine named Mahatma Gandhi its Man of the Year, further cementing his image as a global leader of non-violent resistance.
Suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement (March – December 1931)
In 1930, the British Government convened the First Round Table Conference in London to discuss the Simon Commission Report and constitutional reforms for India. While several Indian leaders attended, the Indian National Congress (INC) — the principal organisation spearheading the freedom struggle — boycotted the conference in protest against the Simon Commission and continued repression.
The absence of the INC rendered the proceedings largely ineffective, prompting commentators to compare it to “staging the Ramlila without Rama.” The British administration soon realised that without Congress participation, any settlement would lack legitimacy. Consequently, efforts were initiated to draw the Congress into negotiations.
The Gandhi–Irwin Pact (Delhi Pact)
On 25 January 1931, Viceroy Lord Irwin announced the unconditional release of Mahatma Gandhi and all members of the Congress Working Committee (CWC). The CWC authorised Gandhi to hold talks with the Viceroy. Discussions began on 14 February 1931 and culminated on 5 March 1931 in the signing of the Delhi Pact, popularly known as the Gandhi–Irwin Pact.
Key Provisions of the Pact
Government Concessions:
- Release of political prisoners who had adhered to non-violence.
- Remission of uncollected penalties.
- Restoration of confiscated lands not yet sold to third parties.
- Permission to manufacture salt for local use in coastal villages.
- Right to peacefully picket liquor and foreign cloth shops.
Congress Commitments:
- Suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
- Participation in the Second Round Table Conference in London.
Unmet Congress Demands:
- Public inquiry into police excesses during the movement.
- Commutation of the death sentences of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev.
Many younger and left-wing leaders within the Congress opposed the agreement, criticising it for failing to secure substantive nationalist demands. The refusal to save Bhagat Singh and his comrades from execution was a particularly emotive issue, fuelling discontent among radicals.
Why Gandhi Accepted the Pact
- Satyagraha Principle – Gandhi’s philosophy demanded that every opportunity be given to the opponent to demonstrate a change of heart.
- Strategic Realism – Gandhi understood that mass movements cannot be sustained indefinitely, as public capacity for sacrifice has natural limits.
- Signs of Fatigue – By late 1930, there was evidence of declining enthusiasm in certain sectors, justifying a temporary truce.
Karachi Session of the Indian National Congress (1931)
The Karachi Session of the Congress, held in March 1931, came at a time of both political breakthrough and public discontent. Convened to endorse the Gandhi–Irwin Pact, the session was presided over by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
However, the atmosphere was overshadowed by the execution of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru on 23 March 1931, just six days before the session. Despite Gandhi’s personal appeals to commute their sentences, the British Government refused to relent. This triggered widespread public anger, and Gandhi was met with black flag demonstrations throughout his journey to Karachi.
Key Highlights of the Session
- The Congress paid tribute to the bravery and sacrifice of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru, while also reaffirming its rejection of political violence as a means to achieve independence.
- Endorsed the Gandhi–Irwin Pact, marking a temporary truce with the British Government.
- Reiterated the goal of Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as the ultimate objective.
- Authorised Gandhi to represent the Congress at the Second Round Table Conference in London.
- For the first time, Congress defined the meaning of Swaraj for the common people, declaring that political freedom must go hand in hand with economic emancipation to end the exploitation of the masses.
One of the most significant outcomes of the session was the adoption of the Karachi Resolution, which combined political rights with socio-economic reforms.
- Drafted by: Jawaharlal Nehru
- Revised by: Mahatma Gandhi
- Philosophy: Reflected the growing influence of socialist ideas in the national movement.
- Core principle: “In order to end the exploitation of the masses, political freedom must include real economic freedom of the starving millions.”
Provisions on Fundamental Rights
The resolution committed the Congress to securing civil, political, and economic rights for all citizens:
- Freedom of speech, press, and assembly.
- Equality before the law, irrespective of caste, creed, or gender.
- Secular governance – neutrality of the state in matters of religion.
- Free and compulsory primary education for all children.
- Universal adult franchise for elections.
Economic and Social Programme
For Peasants:
- Substantial reduction in land rent and revenue.
- Exemption from rent for uneconomic holdings.
- Relief from agricultural indebtedness.
- Regulation of moneylending to protect farmers from exploitation.
For Workers:
- Living wage to ensure a dignified standard of life.
- Limited working hours and improved working conditions.
- Special protection for women workers.
- Right to organise and form trade unions.
For the Economy:
- State ownership or control of key industries, mines, and means of transport to prevent private monopolies and ensure public welfare.
Significance of the Karachi Session
The Karachi Resolution was historic because it was the first official Congress document to integrate political independence with social and economic justice. It reflected a progressive vision, placing economic rights at par with civil liberties, and laid the foundation for India’s future constitutional framework.
Revival of the Civil Disobedience Movement (1932–1934)
Gandhi travelled to London in September 1931 for the Second Round Table Conference. Despite his persuasive advocacy, the British rejected the demand for immediate Dominion Status.
Reasons for Failure
- No agreement on separate electorates and safeguards for minorities.
- Sharp divisions among Indian delegates, weakening the nationalist case.
Political Shift
- April 1931 – Lord Willingdon succeeded Lord Irwin as Viceroy.
- Willingdon viewed the truce with Congress as a political blunder and aimed to suppress the nationalist movement.
- The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was violated, and repression resumed.
Escalating Repression
- December 1931 – Arrests of Jawaharlal Nehru and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan.
- Gandhi returned to Bombay on 28 December 1931; the CWC resolved to restart the movement.
- 4 January 1932 – Gandhi and other leaders arrested; Congress declared illegal.
Government Repression
- Rule through special ordinances, bypassing legal norms.
- Over one lakh satyagrahis imprisoned.
- Confiscation of lands, homes, and property of participants.
- Press censorship and banning of nationalist literature.
- Widespread police brutality in both urban and rural areas.
End of the Movement
- Despite severe repression, the movement continued for over 18 months.
- May 1933 – Gandhi suspended the movement.
- April 1934 – Formal withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Assessment and Significance
While some historians have described the suspension of the movement under the pact as a retreat, the decision was shaped by practical constraints:
- Rising peasant and tribal militancy often turning violent.
- Waning support from urban traders, some resuming trade in foreign goods.
- Severe economic repression weakening the resolve of affluent peasants.
- Leadership vacuum with most top leaders in jail.
Although it did not achieve independence, the movement:
- Deepened the political consciousness of the masses.
- Expanded the social base of the freedom struggle.
- Enhanced the prestige of the Congress, which negotiated with the British as an equal political entity.
Difference between Non-Cooperation Movement and Civil Disobedience Movement
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) | Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34) |
People were asked to refuse cooperation with the British. | People were asked to break colonial laws. |
Significant participation of Muslims. | Compared to NCM, Muslim participation remained low. |
Women joined the movement and participated in picketing before shops selling foreign cloth and liquor. | Compared to NCM, women’s participation was high. |
Peasants, mostly from U.P. and Bihar, joined the movement. | Compared to NCM, the participation of peasants was high. |
— | The number of people imprisoned was estimated to be over 90,000 — more than three times the imprisonments during NCM. |
The Round Table Conferences (1930–1932)
The Round Table Conferences were a series of three high-profile meetings held in London between 1930 and 1932, aimed at discussing constitutional reforms in India. They were convened by the British Government in response to growing nationalist demands and as part of the process initiated after the Simon Commission Report.
In 1929, the Labour Party government under Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald came to power in Britain. On October 31, 1929, Lord Irwin’s Declaration signaled the British intention to draft a new constitutional framework for India in consultation with Indian leaders. However, the Indian National Congress (INC) refused to cooperate with the Simon Commission and initially boycotted the first conference.
First Round Table Conference
Period: November 1930 – January 1931
Opened by: King George V
Chaired by: Ramsay MacDonald
Participation
The INC and most major nationalist leaders boycotted the conference, as the Civil Disobedience Movement was at its peak. The attendees represented a broad range of communal, regional, and political interests:
- Princely States: Rulers and representatives from Alwar, Baroda, Patiala, and others.
- Muslim League: Led by Aga Khan III, including Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Maulana Mohammad Ali.
- Hindu Mahasabha: S. Moonje, M.R. Jayakar.
- Sikhs: Sardar Ujjal Singh.
- Parsis: Phiroze Sethna.
- Women: Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz.
- Depressed Classes: R. Ambedkar, Rettamalai Srinivasan.
- Labour Representatives: M. Joshi, B. Shiva Rao.
- Indian Christians: T. Paul.
- Government of India officials: Narendra Nath Law, Bhupendra Nath Mitra.
Outcome
- Broad agreement that India would develop into a federation.
- Safeguards were to be retained for defence and finance.
- Certain departments could be transferred to Indian control.
- No major breakthrough — without Congress participation, agreements lacked legitimacy.
- The ongoing Civil Disobedience Movement highlighted the necessity of including the Congress in future talks.
Group | Participants |
Depressed Classes | B. R. Ambedkar, R. Srinivasan |
Hindu Mahasabha | M. R. Jayakar, B. S. Moonje |
Liberals | Tej Bahadur Sapru, C. Y. Chintamani |
Muslim Opinion | Agha Khan, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Muhammad Shafi, Fazlal Huq |
Sikhs | Sardar Sampuran Singh |
Indian Christians | K. T. Paul |
Justice Party | Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Bhaskarrao Jadhav, Sir A. P. Patro |
Labour | N. M. Joshi |
Second Round Table Conference
Period: September – December 1931
Following the Gandhi–Irwin Pact (March 1931), the Congress agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement and participate. Mahatma Gandhi attended as the sole representative of the INC, accompanied by A. Rangaswami Iyengar and Madan Mohan Malaviya.
Participants
- Princely States: Rulers from Alwar, Baroda, Bhopal, etc.
- Muslim League: Aga Khan III, Jinnah, Maulana Shaukat Ali.
- Hindu Mahasabha: B.S. Moonje, M.R. Jayakar.
- Liberals: Tej Bahadur Sapru, Srinivasa Sastri, C.Y. Chintamani.
- Depressed Classes: B.R. Ambedkar, Rettamalai Srinivasan.
- Industry & Labour: G.D. Birla, N.M. Joshi, V.V. Giri.
- Women: Sarojini Naidu, Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz, Radhabai Subbarayan.
- Government of India: C.P. Ramaswami Iyer, Narendra Nath Law, M. Ramachandra Rao.
Key Issues
- Change in leadership: Lord Irwin replaced by Lord Willingdon; in Britain, a National Government with Conservative dominance pushed for stricter control in India.
- Gandhi’s Demands:
- Equal partnership between Britain and India.
- Immediate establishment of responsible government at the Centre and in provinces.
- Rejection of separate electorates for minorities.
- Deadlock:
- Minorities, including Muslims, Depressed Classes, Anglo-Indians, and Christians, demanded separate electorates.
- Gandhi opposed separate electorates for the Depressed Classes, leading to an impasse.
- Deadlock:
Outcome
- No consensus on constitutional structure or minority representation.
- MacDonald’s announcements:
- NWFP and Sindh to be made separate Muslim-majority provinces.
- Formation of an Indian Consultative Committee.
- Establishment of three expert committees (finance, franchise, states).
- Threat of a British Communal Award if no agreement was reached.
- Gandhi returned to India empty-handed on December 28, 1931.
Third Round Table Conference
Period: November 17 – December 24, 1932
Participation
- Congress and Gandhi boycotted.
- Indian States: Akbar Hydari (Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail (Mysore), V.T. Krishnamachari (Baroda), Wajahat Hussain (J&K).
- Others: B.R. Ambedkar, Aga Khan III, M.R. Jayakar, N.M. Joshi, Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Muhammad Iqbal, Sir Purshottamdas Thakurdas, Jahanara Shahnawaz.
Outcome
- Limited representation and political weight without Congress.
- Constitutional and minority issues remained unresolved.
- White Paper published in March 1933; examined by a Joint Select Committee in Britain.
- Led to the Government of India Act, 1935, which became the longest and most detailed constitutional framework for colonial India.
Event | Time Period | Viceroy | British Prime Minister |
Simon Commission | 1927 | Lord Irwin | Stanley Baldwin |
First RTC | November 1930 – January 1931 | Lord Irwin | Ramsay MacDonald (Labour Party) |
Second RTC | September – December 1931 | Lord Willingdon | Ramsay MacDonald (National Government) |
Third RTC | November – December 1932 | Lord Willingdon | Ramsay MacDonald |
Communal Award (1932)
On 16 August 1932, British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award, a constitutional arrangement based on the recommendations of the Indian Franchise Committee (also known as the Lothian Committee).
This award aimed to extend and strengthen the system of separate electorates introduced by the Morley–Minto Reforms (1909) and expanded under the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms (1919). However, it intensified communal divisions at a critical juncture in the freedom struggle.
Key Provisions of the Communal Award
1. Separate Electorates
- Provided for separate electorates for Muslims, Europeans, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Depressed Classes (Scheduled Castes), women, and Marathas in Bombay.
- For the Depressed Classes, this arrangement was to continue for 20 years.
2. Reserved Seats
- 71 seats reserved for the Depressed Classes in provincial legislatures.
- Number of seats in provincial legislatures doubled.
3. Weightage for Minorities
- Muslims received extra representation in provinces where they were in a minority.
4. Women’s Representation
- 3% of seats reserved for women in all provinces (except North-West Frontier Province).
5. Double Voting for Depressed Classes
- Members of the Depressed Classes could vote in both separate and general electorates.
6. Labour and Economic Representation
- Special representation for labourers, landlords, traders, and industrialists.
7. Maratha Representation
- In Bombay Province, 7 seats reserved for Marathas.
Congress Position and Nationalist Resistance
- Congress Stance:The Indian National Congress strongly opposed the Communal Award, viewing it as a divisive colonial strategy. However, the Congress neither accepted nor outrightly rejected it, maintaining that minority rights should be settled through mutual consent among Indians.
- Nationalist Leaders’ Objections:Leaders across the spectrum, including Mahatma Gandhi, condemned the award as a “divide and rule” tactic that would weaken national unity and fragment the freedom movement.
Gandhi’s Reaction
- Perception: Gandhi believed the award would perpetuate untouchability and institutionalise caste divisions within Hindu society.
- Advocacy: He called for joint electorates with reserved seats for the Depressed Classes, rejecting separate electorates.
- Indefinite Fast:On 20 September 1932, while in Yerwada Jail, Gandhi began an indefinite fast to protest against separate electorates for the Depressed Classes.
Poona Pact (1932)
- Date and Signatories: On 24 September 1932, an agreement was reached between Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar, ending Gandhi’s fast.
- Key Terms:
- Separate electorates for Depressed Classes were abandoned.
- Reserved seats for Depressed Classes in provincial legislatures were increased from 71 to 147.
- In the Central Legislature, 18% of seats were reserved for the Depressed Classes.
- Government Acceptance: The Poona Pact was accepted as an amendment to the Communal Award.
Impact on Dalits
- Political Consequences: The Pact placed the Depressed Classes within the Hindu fold politically, often making them dependent on caste-Hindu leadership.
- Leadership Marginalisation: Many believed it weakened independent Dalit leadership, thereby reinforcing the Brahmanical social order.
- Loss of Separate Identity: It denied Dalits a distinct political identity, slowing their progress toward equality.
Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign (1932–1934)
Following the Poona Pact, Gandhi launched an intensive nationwide campaign against untouchability, which he considered a moral and social evil.
1. Organisational Measures:
- Founded the All India Anti-Untouchability League in September 1932 (later renamed Harijan Sevak Sangh).
- Launched the weekly Harijan in January 1933 to raise awareness.
2. Post-Prison Activities:
- Released in August 1933, Gandhi moved to the Satyagraha Ashram in Wardha, pledging to stay away from Sabarmati until Swaraj was achieved.
3. Nationwide Tour:
- Between November 1933 and July 1934, Gandhi travelled 20,000 km across India.
- Raised funds for the Harijan Sevak Sangh and urged social, political, and economic upliftment of Harijans.
4. Fasts Against Untouchability:
- Undertook two fasts (May 8 and August 16, 1934) to highlight the urgency of eradicating untouchability.
5. Opposition Faced:
- Orthodox Hindus disrupted meetings, accusing Gandhi of attacking Hinduism.
- Some allied with the colonial government against the Congress.
- In August 1934, the Temple Entry Bill was defeated in Bengal, reflecting upper-caste resistance to Dalit rights.
Aspect | Federal Level | Provincial Level |
Executive | • Governor General: Held pivotal authority as Crown’s representative. • Reserved Subjects: Foreign affairs, defence, tribal and ecclesiastical matters handled by Governor General with non-legislature accountable advisors. • Transferred Subjects: Administered by ministers elected by federal legislature; accountable to the legislature; could resign if a no-confidence motion passed. • Special Powers: Governor General could act on his “individual judgement” regarding special responsibilities. | • Provincial Autonomy: Replaced dyarchy; granted legal and financial autonomy (provinces could borrow on their own security). • Governor: Retained control as Crown’s representative; could assume full control in crises indefinitely. • Special Authority: Over minorities, civil servants, law and order, British business interests, and princely states. |
Legislature | • Bicameral Legislature: - Upper House (Council of States): 260 members; partially elected, 40% nominated by princely states; permanent body with one-third retiring every third year. - Lower House (Federal Assembly): 375 members; partly indirectly elected from provinces, one-third nominated by princely states; five-year term. • Legislative Lists: Federal, provincial, and concurrent lists. • Legislative Restrictions: Only 20% of budget votable. • Governor General’s Powers: Residuary powers to restore cuts in grants, certify bills, issue ordinances, and veto.• No-confidence Motions: Allowed in Federal Assembly, not in Council of States.• Communal and Class-Based Electorates: Extended, deepening religious divisions. | • Direct Elections: All members directly elected. • Separate Electorates: Implemented per Communal Award. • Women’s Enfranchisement: Equal rights for men and women. • Provincial Administration: Headed by a Premier; ministers responsible to legislature; removable by no-confidence vote. • Legislative Powers: Over provincial and concurrent lists. • Non-votable Budget: 40% of budget non-votable. • Governor’s Powers: Could refuse assent to bills, promulgate ordinances, and enact laws without legislative approval. |
Post–Civil Disobedience Movement (1934–1939)
The Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM), which had been one of the most significant phases of India’s struggle for independence, was formally withdrawn in April 1934. Mahatma Gandhi, acknowledging the limitations of the movement, resigned from the Indian National Congress (INC) later that year. This withdrawal ushered in a crucial period of ideological debates, strategic realignments, and experimentation with new methods of political engagement.
First Stage Debate: 1934–1935
Following the suspension of the CDM, three distinct perspectives emerged within the nationalist camp regarding the immediate way forward:
1. Constructive Work on Gandhian Lines
- Advocated by Gandhi and his close followers.
- Emphasis on social reform, rural upliftment, promotion of khadi, and development of village industries to encourage self-reliance.
- Belief that grassroots empowerment through constructive activities was essential to prepare the masses for future mass struggles.
- Viewed as a capacity-building phase for mobilising millions during the next confrontation with colonial rule.
2. Constitutional Struggle & Participation in Elections
- Supported by A. Ansari, Asaf Ali, Bhulabhai Desai, S. Satyamurthy, B.C. Roy, among others.
- Proposed participation in the 1934 Central Legislative Assembly elections to sustain political morale and keep nationalism alive in the absence of mass agitation.
- Participation did not imply faith in constitutional politics, but was seen as a tactical move to strengthen Congress’s political position and prepare for future struggles.
- Belief that a strong presence in councils would bring prestige and confidence to the nationalist cause.
3. Leftist Trend Opposed to Both Constructive Work and Council Entry
- Led by Jawaharlal Nehru and backed by Congress Socialists and Communists.
- Opposed council entry, arguing it would dilute revolutionary fervour and distract from the primary goal of anti-colonial struggle.
- Advocated continuous non-constitutionalist mass action, capitalising on the economic crisis and rising discontent among the masses.
Nehru’s Vision:
- Criticised the withdrawal of CDM as a spiritual defeat and a retreat from revolutionary ideals.
- Called for integration of class struggle into the Congress programme, focusing on peasants and workers through kisan sabhas and trade unions.
- Rejected Gandhi’s Struggle–Truce–Struggle (S–T–S) formula, advocating instead a Struggle–Victory (S–V) approach for achieving Purna Swaraj.
- His speeches at the Lucknow (1936) and Faizpur (1937) Congress sessions reflected a clear Marxist orientation.
Gandhi’s Conciliatory Approach and Council Entry
- Fear of a Split: Nationalists feared a repeat of the Surat Split (1907), which had weakened the movement.
- Gandhi’s Stance: While still sceptical of parliamentary politics, Gandhi allowed those unwilling or unable to engage in satyagraha to work in legislatures, provided they avoided constitutionalism or self-interest.
- AICC Patna Session (May 1934): Established a Parliamentary Board to contest elections under the Congress banner.
- Gandhi’s Resignation (October 1934): Stepped down from Congress due to fundamental disagreements with factions supporting parliamentary politics and Nehru’s socialist programme.
Electoral Success and Internal Dynamics (1934 Elections)
- In the November 1934 Central Legislative Assembly elections, Congress won 45 out of 75 seats reserved for Indians, demonstrating significant popular support despite internal ideological differences.
- British authorities hoped for internal division, but Congress managed to maintain unity by accommodating diverse perspectives.
Government of India Act, 1935
- Influenced by the Third Round Table Conference (1932), which was held without Congress participation.
- Key Features:
- Proposal for an All-India Federation (British Indian provinces + princely states).
- Federation to be formed only if states representing half the population agreed to join — which never happened due to princely resistance.
- Residuary powers vested in the Governor-General.
Second Stage Debate: Provincial Elections (1937)
- Provincial assembly elections announced for early 1937 under the Government of India Act, 1935.
- Consensus: Congress opposed the Act but decided to contest elections to strengthen anti-imperialist sentiment through a progressive programme.
Ideological Divide:
- Left Faction (Nehru, Bose, Socialists, Communists): Opposed forming ministries after elections, fearing it would weaken resistance to the 1935 Act.
- Moderates and Gandhians: Advocated forming ministries as a tactical opportunity to implement reforms and showcase administrative competence.
- Lucknow Session (1936) & Faizpur Session (1937): Congress decided to participate in elections but postponed the decision on forming ministries until after the results.
Congress Rule in Provinces (1937–1939)
Election Results:
- Total electorate: 1 million (only 14% of the population).
- Voter turnout: 5 million.
- Congress won 716 out of 1,161 contested seats (of 1,585 total).
- Formed governments in Bombay, Madras, Central Provinces, Orissa, United Provinces, Bihar, later extending to NWFP and Assam.
Congress Ministries’ Approach:
- Gandhi advised leaders to treat office as “crowns of thorns”, using them for nationalist objectives.
- Sought to demonstrate Indians’ administrative capabilities despite structural restrictions.
Work Under Congress Ministries (1937–1939)
1. Civil Liberties
- Repealed emergency powers and Public Safety Acts (1932).
- Lifted bans on organisations, restored press freedom, returned confiscated arms, and released political prisoners.
- Shortcomings: Arrests of socialist leaders and continued CID surveillance of leftists.
2. Agrarian Reforms
- P. Tenancy Act (1939): Gave tenants hereditary rights.
- Abolished begar (forced labour) and illegal levies.
- Debt relief measures in multiple provinces; tenancy reform bills in Orissa and Madras (partially implemented).
3. Labour Policies
- Industrial Disputes Act (1938): Encouraged conciliation, set up Industrial Arbitration.
- Labour Enquiry Committee recommendations for better wages and maternity benefits.
- Faced criticism for using Section 144 and repressive measures against militant trade union protests.
4. Social Welfare
- Temple entry reforms, Harijan upliftment measures, scholarships for disadvantaged groups.
- Expansion of primary and technical education, particularly for girls and Harijans.
- Support for khadi and village industries.
- Formation of the National Planning Committee (1938) under Subhas Chandra Bose.
Resignation of Congress Ministries (1939)
- In October–November 1939, all Congress ministries resigned in protest against Lord Linlithgow’s unilateral decision to involve India in World War II without consulting Indian representatives.
- Post-resignation, political repression increased, industrial unrest rose, and the gap between the colonial government and nationalist forces widened.
Events Preceding the Second World War (1934–1939)
The years following the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1934 marked a turbulent phase in the Indian freedom struggle. This period was characterised by ideological clashes within the Indian National Congress (INC), the emergence of radical voices, and the sharpening of political divisions that would shape nationalist strategies on the eve of the Second World War.
1. Disarray in the Wake of Civil Disobedience
After the suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement, Mahatma Gandhi grew increasingly concerned about the internal health of the Congress organisation.
Gandhi’s Discontent
- Corruption and Indiscipline: Gandhi observed a decline in ethical conduct and self-sacrifice among party members. Petty rivalries and personal ambition, in his view, were overshadowing national objectives.
- Bogus Membership: He criticised the artificial inflation of membership rolls to manipulate internal Congress elections and control committees.
- Unethical Practices: The use of underhanded methods to capture organisational power violated Gandhi’s principles of truth, transparency, and non-violence.
Gandhi’s Philosophy – Need for Internal Cleansing
- Gandhi emphasised that before launching another confrontation with the British, Congress must undergo moral and organisational reform.
- He believed that without widespread public enthusiasm and a disciplined cadre, any new movement would be premature and ineffective.
2. Subhas Chandra Bose’s Rise and Ideological Stand
Subhas Chandra Bose emerged as one of the most dynamic leaders within Congress in the late 1930s, advocating a more radical and immediate approach to the independence struggle.
Provincial Leadership and Early Work
- As President of the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee, Bose mobilised youth groups, workers, and trade unions, projecting Congress as a force ready for direct confrontation with colonial power.
Key Ideological Positions
- Opposition to Dominion Status: Alongside Jawaharlal Nehru, Bose rejected the Motilal Nehru Report’s advocacy of dominion status, instead demanding complete and immediate independence.
- Formation of the Independence League: Bose announced this body to rally support for unqualified freedom from British rule, underscoring his anti-compromise stance.
3. The Haripura Congress Session (February 1938)
Bose was unanimously elected President of the Congress at the Haripura Session, signalling strong backing from progressive and left-leaning elements.
Bose’s Presidential Address – Vision of Empowerment
- Revolutionary Potential of Congress Ministries: Bose urged that Congress governments in the provinces use their administrative authority to mobilise the masses and prepare for direct struggle.
- Economic Planning: Advocated state-led development through the National Planning Committee, which was subsequently set up under his guidance.
- Support for Movements in Princely States: Declared moral support for popular struggles against autocratic rulers in princely states.
- International Outlook: Recognised growing tensions in Europe and Asia, predicting that an impending world war could provide a historic opportunity for India’s independence movement.
4. The Tripuri Congress Session (March 1939)
Despite Gandhi’s reservations, Bose sought re-election as Congress President, determined to push a more militant agenda.
Election and Result
- Bose won 1,580 votes against Pattabhi Sitaramayya’s 1,377, the latter being Gandhi’s nominee.
- Gandhi accepted the outcome but famously remarked that Sitaramayya’s defeat was his own.
Ideological Polarisation
- Bose’s victory deepened the divide between the Gandhian right and the left-leaning faction.
- His criticism of the Working Committee’s compromises with the British led to the resignation of several committee members aligned with Gandhi.
Bose’s Radical Proposal
- At Tripuri, Bose, despite ill health, demanded a six-month ultimatum to the British to grant independence, failing which a mass civil disobedience movement should be launched.
- Gandhi’s Opposition: Gandhi rejected the plan, citing communal tensions, internal divisions, and inadequate preparation for a nationwide struggle.
Resolution and Resignation
- A resolution by Govind Ballabh Pant urged Bose to work in accordance with Gandhi’s guidance.
- Finding himself ideologically isolated and unable to unify Congress around his vision, Bose resigned from the presidency in April 1939, and Rajendra Prasad succeeded him.
5. Formation of the Forward Bloc (May 1939)
- On 3 May 1939, Bose launched the Forward Bloc within Congress at Makur, Unnao, to consolidate leftist forces and pursue a radical anti-imperialist programme.
- He aimed to mobilise peasants, workers, and youth for a mass uprising against British rule.
Congress Disciplinary Action
- In August 1939, after Bose called for an all-India protest against the AICC directive, the Congress Working Committee took disciplinary measures:
- Bose was removed as President of the Bengal Provincial Congress Committee.
- Barred from holding any elective office within Congress for three years.
6. Broader Anti-Imperialist Context
At the Tripuri Session, Congress passed a resolution expressing solidarity with China in its struggle against Japanese imperialism. This reflected the internationalist and anti-imperialist outlook of Congress on the eve of the Second World War.
Second World War and the Nationalist Response (1939–1940)
The outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 had a profound impact on India’s political landscape. It exposed the contradictions of British imperialism, deepened ideological divisions within the nationalist camp, and accelerated the demand for complete independence.
1. Outbreak of War and British Unilateralism
- 1 September 1939 – Germany invaded Poland, marking the beginning of World War II.
- 3 September 1939 – Britain declared war on Germany. Without consulting any Indian political body, the British Government of India unilaterally declared India’s participation in the war.
Indian Reaction
- The decision infuriated the Indian National Congress (INC), which was then the principal political representative of Indian aspirations.
- The move was seen as another example of colonial disregard for Indian sovereignty and public opinion.
2. Congress’s Conditional Support to the Allied War Effort
Although opposed to fascism, Congress was willing to conditionally support the Allies, but only if Britain met key political demands:
- Post-war Constituent Assembly – A Constituent Assembly must be convened after the war to frame a constitution for a free India.
- Responsible Government at the Centre – Immediate establishment of a truly representative and responsible central government.
Viceroy’s Rejection
- Lord Linlithgow rejected these demands outright, insisting on maintaining British authority.
- This deepened nationalist distrust, as Congress argued that war aims should include the end of imperialism and a clear commitment to Indian democracy.
3. Divergent Views of National Leaders
- Mahatma Gandhi – Advocated avoiding an immediate mass struggle. Favoured political work, public unity, and moral support to Britain on a strictly non-violent basis.
- Jawaharlal Nehru – Adopted a stance of conditional support, insisting that complete independence was a prerequisite for cooperation in the war.
- Subhas Chandra Bose and socialist leaders like Acharya Narendra Dev and Jayaprakash Narayan – Rejected any cooperation, viewing the war as an imperialist conflict. Urged civil disobedience to exploit Britain’s vulnerability.
4. CWC Meeting at Wardha (October 1939)
- 23 October 1939 – The Congress Working Committee (CWC) formally rejected Linlithgow’s statement.
- It condemned fascist aggression but emphasised that India could not fight for democratic freedom abroad while being denied it at home.
- The resolution demanded an end to British imperialism in India and a declaration of clear war aims that included post-war independence.
5. Resignation of Congress Ministries (October 1939)
- British Strategy – Linlithgow, instead of engaging with Congress, consulted princely states and communal groups, a divide-and-rule approach to undermine INC authority.
- Congress Response – On 23 October 1939, all Congress provincial ministries resigned in protest.
- Significance – This political withdrawal marked a major escalation in the nationalist struggle and created a political vacuum in provinces, which the Muslim League and other groups sought to fill.
6. Ramgarh Session of the Congress (March 1940)
- Presided over by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the session reaffirmed complete independence as the only acceptable political objective.
Key Positions
- Rejection of Dominion Status – No compromise within the imperial framework.
- Possibility of Civil Disobedience – The option of launching a mass movement was kept open.
Divergence of Opinions
- Gandhi – Continued to favour provincial cooperation and moral support for the Allies, avoiding armed conflict.
- Nehru – Demanded total independence before offering any wartime cooperation.
- Bose – Called for direct action to take advantage of Britain’s wartime weakness.
Congress Declaration
- Only Purna Swaraj (complete independence) would be acceptable.
- Civil Disobedience would be launched when the leadership deemed it necessary.
7. Muslim League’s Pakistan Resolution (Lahore, March 1940)
While Congress debated wartime strategy, the Muslim League took a decisive step that would reshape Indian politics.
- Passed at the Lahore Session (23 March 1940) under Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s
- Called for the creation of “independent states” in Muslim-majority areas of India.
- Stressed that constituent units should be autonomous and sovereign.
- Demanded safeguards for Muslim minorities in Hindu-majority provinces.
- This resolution came to be known as the Pakistan Resolution, marking the formal political articulation of the Two-Nation Theory.
August Offer (August 1940)
The rapid escalation of World War II significantly influenced British policy towards India. In 1940, Hitler’s lightning victories in Europe – notably the fall of Belgium, Holland, and France – left Britain vulnerable and in urgent need of colonial cooperation in the war effort.
In this context, Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru opposed any opportunistic use of Britain’s weakness but indicated that the Indian National Congress (INC) was prepared to support Britain if it was allowed to form an interim national government during the war.
The British Government rejected Congress’s proposal and, instead, unilaterally announced the August Offer on 8 August 1940.
Key Provisions of the August Offer
- Dominion Status as Post-War Goal – For the first time, Britain explicitly promised Dominion Status for India after the war.
- Expansion of the Viceroy’s Executive Council – The Council would be enlarged to include a majority of Indian members, representing leading political parties.
- Constituent Assembly – A post-war Constituent Assembly, predominantly composed of Indians, would be convened to frame the country’s future constitution.
- Minority Rights Protection – No constitution would be adopted without the consent of minorities, particularly reassuring the Muslim League.
Responses
- Congress – Rejected the offer as wholly inadequate in the era of Purna Swaraj.
- Jawaharlal Nehru dismissed it as “dead as a doornail.”
- Mahatma Gandhi criticised it for widening the gap between nationalist aspirations and British intentions.
- Muslim League – Welcomed the minority veto provision, viewing it as a safeguard for Muslim political interests and a step towards partition.
Individual Satyagraha (1940–41)
After the August Offer, repression intensified. The British passed ordinances restricting freedom of speech, press, and assembly. They made constitutional progress conditional upon agreement between Congress and the Muslim League, effectively stalling reforms.
Unwilling to launch a mass struggle during wartime but determined to assert India’s political position, Gandhi initiated the Individual Satyagraha in October 1940.
Objectives
- Assert the Right to Freedom of Speech – Especially to voice opposition to India’s forced participation in the war.
- Demonstrate Nationalist Strength and Patience – Without resorting to mass confrontation.
- Highlight British Hypocrisy – Fighting Nazi oppression abroad while denying liberty at home.
Key Features
- Freedom to Oppose War – Satyagrahis insisted on their right to make anti-war declarations.
- Delhi Chalo Movement – If not arrested, volunteers would march to Delhi as a symbolic escalation.
- Leaders – Vinoba Bhave was the first satyagrahi, followed by Jawaharlal Nehru and many others.
- Scale – By May 1941, nearly 25,000 people had been arrested.
Cripps Mission (March 1942)
The Japanese advance in Southeast Asia and the fall of Burma brought the war dangerously close to India. Under American and Chinese pressure, Britain sent Sir Stafford Cripps to secure Indian cooperation in the Allied war effort by promising post-war constitutional reforms.
Main Proposals
1. Dominion Status – India to become an Indian Union with dominion status after the war, free to maintain ties with the Commonwealth and join the United Nations.
2. Constituent Assembly – To be convened after the war:
- Elected members from provincial legislatures.
- Nominated representatives from princely states.
3. Right to Secede – Provinces unwilling to join the Union could frame their own constitutions and sign separate agreements with Britain.
4. Interim Period – Defence and the Governor-General’s powers to remain with Britain until the new constitution took effect.
Key Departures from Past Proposals
- Placed constitution-making entirely in Indian hands.
- Acknowledged the possibility of partition through provincial secession.
- Allowed exit from the Commonwealth.
Reactions
- Congress –
- Nehru and Azad rejected the offer, opposing the secession clause and lack of immediate power transfer.
- Feared the plan threatened national unity.
- Congress –
- Muslim League – Opposed the idea of a single Union, as it did not guarantee Pakistan.
- Other Political Groups – Hindu Mahasabha, Sikhs, Liberals, and Depressed Classes opposed the secession provision and its risk to territorial integrity.
Reasons for Failure
- Inflexible Negotiations – Cripps’s “take it or leave it” stance.
- Veto Powers Dispute – Over the Governor-General’s control of defence.
- British Leadership Resistance – Churchill and others opposed major concessions.
- Implementation Uncertainty – No guarantees on how or when the transfer of power would occur.
Aftermath
- Gandhi called it a “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank.”
- Nehru criticised it as perpetuating colonial autocracy.
- Its failure deepened nationalist frustration, paving the way for the Quit India Movement (August 1942).
Difference between Mahatma Gandhi & B. R. Ambedkar
Mahatma Gandhi | B. R. Ambedkar |
Follower of Hinduism. | In 1956, gave up Hinduism and adopted Buddhism. |
Had faith in the Vedas and Hindu scriptures, such as the Gita. | Opposed Hindu scriptures, believing they sanctioned the caste system; publicly burnt the Manusmriti. |
Supported the concept of Chaturvarna, but believed its division was based on functions, not superiority or inferiority. | Opposed the varna system as it created inequality. |
Did not favour the abolition of caste. | Favoured the abolition of caste for a radical reconfiguration of Hindu religion. |
Opposed the separate electorate, believing it would create division. | Argued for a separate electorate to secure political representation for the Depressed Classes. |
Believed eliminating untouchability required a change in daily behaviour; sought to remove it by sensitising upper-caste Hindus and through social work. | Favoured a rights-based approach for the upliftment of Depressed Classes. |