Administrative Policies

     The Revolt of 1857 was a turning point in the colonial administration of India. It not only led to the abolition of the East India Company’s rule but also to a complete shift in British attitudes and policies toward India. The rebellion shook the confidence of the British establishment, and in its aftermath, they adopted more conservative, repressive, and reactionary policies. The earlier attempts, however hesitant, to modernise India were abandoned in favour of policies designed to divide, suppress, and control the Indian population.

1. Divide and Rule Policy

     The British consolidated their control over India by leveraging and deepening existing social, regional, and religious divisions. This strategy, known as “Divide and Rule”, became a cornerstone of colonial governance after 1858.

• • The British had earlier conquered India by exploiting the disunity among Indian kingdoms and princes. Post-1857, they used this same method to fragment Indian society
  • They deliberately set rulers against their subjects, provinces against provinces, castes against castes, and most damagingly, Hindus against Muslims.
  • The unity demonstrated by Hindus and Muslims during the Revolt of 1857 deeply alarmed the colonial government. In response:

• • • • Immediately after the revolt, they targeted Muslims, confiscating their lands and properties.
      • Hindus were portrayed as loyal allies of British rule.
      • However, after 1870, the British reversed this stance, attempting to win over the Muslim elite and sow communal division to weaken the growing nationalist movement.

• • The absence of industrial and commercial growth in colonial India meant that government jobs were the only source of respectable employment. The British capitalised on this by promising communal favours, especially to the educated Muslim classes, thereby driving a wedge between Hindu and Muslim intelligentsia.

2. Hostility towards Educated Indians

Initially, British officials had supported Western education in India. The establishment of universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1857 was part of this effort.

• • However, once educated Indians began questioning British rule and analysing its exploitative nature, the British administration grew hostile to the very class they had helped create.
  • When educated Indians started forming political associations, advocating for Indian participation in administration, and finally established the Indian National Congress in 1885, British officials became overtly antagonistic.
  • Higher education was discouraged, and efforts were made to curtail the spread of modern political thought.

This shift revealed that the British commitment to progress and reform was opportunistic and conditional on Indian political passivity.

3. British Policy towards Zamindars and Aristocracy

• • While turning against progressive and educated Indians, the British aligned themselves with the most reactionary segments of Indian society: the princes, zamindars, and landlords.
  • These feudal elements were projected as the “natural leaders” of the Indian people, and their interests were staunchly protected.
  • Zamindars who had rebelled during the revolt, especially in Awadh, were restored to power, and their estates were returned.
  • In return, these groups became firm allies of British rule, viewing the Raj as the protector of their privileges and wealth.

4. Attitude towards Social Reform

• • Prior to 1857, the British had supported limited social reforms such as:

• • • • The abolition of Sati.
      • Legalising widow remarriage.

• • However, following the Revolt of 1857, they concluded that such reforms had angered conservative sections of Indian society and contributed to the uprising.
  • Consequently, the British:

• • • • Withdrew support for reformers.
      • Aligned with orthodox and reactionary elements.
      • Opposed further social legislation that challenged regressive practices.

As Jawaharlal Nehru remarked in The Discovery of India:
“Because of this natural alliance of the British power with the reactionaries in India, it became the guardian and upholder of many an evil custom and practice, which it otherwise condemned.”

5. Neglect of Social Services

• • Unlike contemporary Europe, where the 19th century saw major improvements in sanitation, education, and public health, India under British rule saw stagnation in these areas.
  • The colonial budget prioritised:

• • • • Military expenditure.
      • War financing.
      • Salaries for European officials.

• • Minimal funds were allocated to education, health, or infrastructure, and the limited facilities created were largely restricted to urban elites.

6. Labour Legislation: An Inadequate Response

The working conditions in 19th-century factories and plantations were inhuman and exploitative:

• • Workers, including women and children, toiled for 12–16 hours daily.
  • Wages were extremely low and working environments were unhygienic and hazardous.
  • No weekly rest days or safety norms were observed.

British textile manufacturers in London, fearing cheap Indian labour would make Indian products competitive, pressured the colonial administration to introduce factory laws—not for Indian welfare, but to protect British interests.

Indian Factories Act of 1881

• • Primarily addressed child labour.
  • Key Provisions:

• • • • Children under 7 were prohibited from working.
      • Children aged 7–12 could work up to 9 hours a day.
      • Minimum four holidays per month.
      • Dangerous machinery had to be properly fenced.

• • Applied only to factories with 100 or more workers, excluding most small-scale units.

Indian Factories Act of 1891

• • Slightly more progressive:

• • • • Women’s working hours limited to 11 hours/day.
      • Employment of children below 9 prohibited.
      • Working hours for children (9–14 years) capped at 7 hours.
      • Weekly holiday mandated for all.

• • However, the law applied only to factories with 50+ workers, and men’s working hours remained unregulated.

7. Discrimination in Plantations: Official Favour for Europeans

• • The Factory Acts did not apply to British-owned tea and coffee plantations.
  • Workers on plantations were ruthlessly exploited and treated like bonded labourers.
  • Between 1863 and 1882, the British enacted several penal laws allowing planters to:

• • • • Legally detain labourers who broke contracts.
      • Arrest workers refusing to work under harsh conditions.
      • Treat breaches of contract as criminal offences.

These laws reflected the colonial state’s open collusion with European capitalists.

8. Censorship and Repression of the Press

• • The modern Indian press, initiated by Charles Metcalfe’s Press Act of 1835, was seen by Indian leaders as a vehicle for political awakening.
  • Over time, nationalist newspapers began to challenge British rule, exposing exploitation and calling for reforms.
  • The government responded with repressive press laws, most notably:

• • • • Vernacular Press Act (1878): Curbed the freedom of Indian-language newspapers. Repealed in 1882 after nationwide protests.
      • Press Acts of 1908 and 1910: Enacted after the rise of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement, these imposed strict censorship and granted sweeping powers to suppress dissent.

9. Racial Discrimination and White Supremacy

• • British colonial ideology was grounded in a belief in racial superiority.
  • This was evident in:

• • • Segregated railway compartments, hotels, parks, and clubs marked “Europeans Only”.
    • Systemic exclusion of Indians from higher administrative and judicial posts.

• • British officials openly patronised racism, and Indians were treated as second-class citizens in their own land.

10. British Policy towards Princely States

Before 1857

• • The British saw Princely States as semi-sovereign entities.
  • Annexation was pursued through:
    1. Subsidiary Alliance: Non-payment resulted in territorial loss.
    2. Doctrine of Lapse: Lack of a male heir led to annexation.
    3. Paramountcy: Claimed supreme authority over all Indian states.
    4. Moral Grounds: Justified annexing Awadh to “liberate” its people.

After 1857

• • The British abandoned their policy of annexation due to:

• • • • The loyalty shown by most Indian princes during the revolt.
      • Desire to stabilise their empire.

Post-Revolt Policy Changes:

• • Right to adopt heirs was restored.
  • Policy of non-interference in internal matters was officially proclaimed, but not consistently followed.
  • In 1876, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India, emphasising British supremacy.
  • Princes acknowledged the suzerainty of the British Crown, accepting their subordinate status.

Lord Curzon famously remarked that Indian princes were mere “agents of the British Crown.”

11. British Interference in Princely States

• • Though nominally independent, princely states were monitored by British Residents.

• • The British:
    • • Intervened in appointments and administration.
      • Claimed to be modernising governance, but were in reality suppressing democratic movements.
      • Prevented popular participation, fearing it would fuel nationalism.

Examples of British Interference

Mysore:

• • 1799: Tipu Sultan defeated; Subsidiary Alliance imposed.
  • 1831: State taken over due to alleged misrule.
  • 1881: Restored under Lord Ripon after recognising adopted heir.

Baroda:

• • 1874: Malhar Rao Gaekwad deposed for misrule.
  • The state was not annexed; a new ruler from the Gaekwad family was installed.

Post-1857, British administrative policies were marked by increased centralisation, racial arrogance, communal division, and political repression. These policies were designed to prolong colonial rule, not to modernise or empower India. However, ironically, they fueled nationalist sentiments and exposed the contradictions of imperialism, setting the stage for India’s long and determined struggle for independence.