Major Causes for Land Degradation:

Deforestation: 

• • The roots of trees and plants play a crucial role in anchoring soil particles and managing water flow, which helps protect the soil from erosion.
  • However, the rapid increase in population has intensified the demand for forest land and resources, leading to widespread deforestation.
  • The loss of forests renders the soil more susceptible to erosion, exacerbating the problem.
  • Significant soil degradation in regions such as the Shiwalik range, the Chos of Punjab, and the ravines of the Chambal valley can be attributed to deforestation.

Primary Factors Contributing to Deforestation:

Shifting Cultivation:

• • This agricultural method involves clearing a section of land, burning the vegetation, and incorporating the ash into the soil to enhance its nutrient content.
  • The land is cultivated for a period of two to three years, after which, if the yield diminishes, it is abandoned to allow for natural regeneration.
  • Subsequently, the same technique is applied to a new area. However, this practice has become increasingly unsustainable due to the escalating population pressures on forested regions.

Raw Materials:

• • Various industries utilize wood as a fundamental raw material for the production of items such as paper, plywood, furniture, matchsticks, boxes, crates, and packing cases.
  • Additionally, industries source raw materials from plants, including those used for pharmaceuticals, fragrances, resins, gums, waxes, turpentine, latex, rubber, tannins, alkaloids, and beeswax.

Additional Factors:

• • Mining activities, particularly open-pit mining, have led to widespread deforestation globally.
  • The surge in demand for commodities such as cocoa, coffee, tea, sugar, palm oil, and rubber has also contributed to deforestation in tropical rainforests.
  • Other contributors to deforestation include overgrazing, agricultural expansion, urban development, flooding, wildfires, pests, and diseases.

Consequences of Deforestation:

• • The reduction of closed forests, as determined by canopy coverage, has occurred due to deforestation, resulting in a rise in degraded forest areas, which transition from being carbon sinks to carbon sources.
  • Forests play a crucial role in recycling moisture from the soil into the surrounding atmosphere through the process of transpiration, which subsequently leads to precipitation in the form of rain.
  • The act of deforestation leads to an immediate decline in groundwater levels, primarily due to reduced percolation caused by rapid surface runoff on exposed land.
  • In the long term, this also contributes to a decrease in precipitation. Consequently, the natural cycle of water reuse is disrupted, leading to significant water loss through swift runoff.

Soil Salinity and Soil Alkalinity: 

• • Saline and alkaline soils exhibit a top layer that becomes saturated with saline and alkaline deposits, resulting in a surface covered with salt particles.
  • The weathering of undecomposed rock fragments leads to the formation of sodium, magnesium, and calcium salts, as well as sulfurous acid. Some of these salts are carried downstream in solution by rivers.
  • In areas characterized by a low water table, often due to excessive irrigation in canal-fed regions, salts can seep into the subsoil.
  • Conversely, in well-drained areas, these salts are washed away by flowing water. However, in regions with inadequate drainage, water with high salt concentrations can stagnate, leading to the accumulation of salts in the topsoil upon evaporation.
  • In locations where the subsoil water table is elevated, harmful salts are drawn upward through capillary action, particularly during the dry season when evaporation occurs.
  • Canal-irrigated regions typically have abundant water resources, which encourages farmers to over-irrigate their fields.
  • This practice raises the groundwater level, resulting in the emergence of saline and alkaline efflorescences, characterized by a white salt layer on the surface, composed of sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts.
  • Extensive areas of canal-irrigated land in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana, as well as arid regions in Rajasthan and semi-arid areas in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Karnataka, are grappling with this issue.
  • While the Indira Gandhi canal in Rajasthan has transformed the sandy desert into fertile land, it has also led to significant challenges related to salinity and alkalinity.

Impact of Salinity and Alkalinity: 

• • Salinity and alkalinity negatively influence soil health, leading to a decrease in soil fertility.
  • Cultivating crops on saline soils is unfeasible without extensive irrigation to wash away the accumulated salts.
  • The selection of crops is restricted to those that can withstand high salinity levels, such as cotton and barley.
  • The nutritional quality of both fodder and food produced in such conditions tends to be substandard.
  • Salinity and alkalinity pose challenges for construction projects, including buildings and roads.
  • They can also contribute to flooding by hindering water percolation.

Methods for Addressing Salinity and Alkalinity:

• • Establish drainage systems to facilitate the removal of excess water and reduce the water table.
  • Prevent water loss by sealing leaks in canals, reservoirs, and other water bodies through appropriate lining techniques.
  • Utilize irrigation resources efficiently to optimize water use.
  • Enhance plant cover by introducing salt-tolerant species to mitigate further land degradation.
  • Implement crop rotation practices to diversify soil use.
  • Apply gypsum generously to transform alkalis into soluble forms.
  • Remove alkali (base) by introducing sulfuric acid or other acid-generating materials such as sulfur and pyrite.
  • Incorporate organic materials like rice husks and rice straw to encourage the production of mild acids during decomposition.

Desertification: 

• • Desertification refers to the expansion of desert-like environments in arid or semi-arid regions, driven by human activities or climatic changes. A significant portion of the area between the Indus River and the Aravalli mountain range is experiencing the encroachment of desert conditions.
  • Soils in desert regions are particularly vulnerable to wind erosion. The wind transports sand, which settles on adjacent fertile lands, leading to a decline in their productivity.
  • Consequently, these fertile areas gradually blend into the encroaching desert. It has been estimated that the Thar Desert is advancing at a concerning rate of approximately 0.5 kilometers annually.
  • The phenomenon of desertification is primarily linked to overgrazing, indiscriminate deforestation, and an increasing population. Additionally, climate change has played a role in exacerbating the spread of desert areas.

Ecological Consequences of Desertification: 

• • The movement of sand and its buildup on farmland.
  • Significant soil erosion caused by both wind and water.
  • The accumulation of sand in rivers and lakes reduces their capacity to hold water.
  • A decline in the water table results in severe water scarcity.
  • An expansion of wasteland areas.
  • A reduction in agricultural output.
  • A rise in the frequency and severity of drought conditions.

Strategies for Mitigating Desertification: 

• • Implementing extensive tree planting initiatives in transitional areas.
  • Applying mulch made from various plant species to stabilize shifting sand dunes in arid regions, as mulches act as effective physical barriers against moving sand.
  • Regulating grazing practices and establishing new pasturelands.
  • Prohibiting the indiscriminate logging of trees.
  • Promoting alternative fuel sources to decrease reliance on firewood.
  • Utilizing sandy and degraded lands through careful and strategic planning.

Waterlogging:

• • The presence of flat terrains and depressions leads to the phenomenon of waterlogging. Soils that are waterlogged become saturated with water, which accumulates during the rainy season or results from leaks from various water sources.
  • In India, approximately 12 million hectares are affected by waterlogging, with half of this area located along the coastline and the other half situated inland.
  • Waterlogging is considered a significant contributor to soil salinity. The effective design of drainage systems is essential to mitigate the challenges posed by waterlogging.

The primary techniques for alleviating excess water in waterlogged soils include: 

• • Surface Drainage: This method entails the removal of surplus water from the ground surface via an open drainage system that has a suitable outlet.
  • Vertical Drainage: This refers to any borehole or well that extracts water from the underlying layers. It is particularly effective in the Indo-Gangetic plain, where the extracted water is utilized for irrigating adjacent areas.

Faulty Methods of Agriculture:

• • A significant portion of soil erosion in India can be attributed to ineffective agricultural practices. Improper ploughing techniques, insufficient crop rotation, and the implementation of shifting cultivation are among the most detrimental methods employed.
  • When fields are ploughed along the slope, there is no barrier to impede the flow of water, leading to the easy washing away of the topsoil.
  • In certain regions, the continuous cultivation of the same crop (monoculture) year after year disrupts the chemical equilibrium of the soil. This results in soil depletion, making it more susceptible to erosion by wind or water.
  • The clearing of forest cover associated with shifting cultivation exposes the soil to the elements, particularly rain and sunlight, which causes significant loss of topsoil, especially on sloped terrains.

Wind Erosion:

• • Wind erosion, also referred to as aeolian erosion, plays a crucial role in arid and semi-arid environments. In desert regions, high-speed winds prevail due to the lack of physical barriers. These winds effectively strip away fertile, loose soils, resulting in depressions that lack topsoil.
  • The creation of these depressions in desert landscapes is a preliminary stage in the development of an oasis. An oasis emerges in these low-lying areas when underground water accumulates above bedrock.
  • Fine and medium-sized sand particles are transported by the wind through a series of jumps and bounds, a process known as saltation.
  • Additionally, smaller sand and dust particles can be carried over extensive distances through the air via a mechanism called suspension.
  • Coarser sand typically does not become airborne; instead, it is rolled along the ground, a phenomenon referred to as surface creep.
  • Very coarse sand and gravel are too heavy to be lifted by the wind, resulting in wind-eroded soils that are characterized by surfaces covered with larger fragments. This type of arid soil surface is termed desert pavement.

Water Erosion: 

     Running water serves as a primary agent in the removal of soil particles. Water-induced soil erosion occurs through mechanisms such as raindrops, waves, or ice. The classification of water erosion varies based on its intensity and characteristics, including raindrop erosion, sheet erosion, rill and gully erosion, stream bank erosion, landslides, coastal erosion, and glacial erosion. 

Raindrop Erosion or Splash Erosion: 

• • A raindrop, measuring approximately 5 mm in diameter, impacts the soil at a speed of 32 km/h. Upon striking exposed soil, raindrops act like miniature explosives, displacing soil particles and compromising the soil’s structural integrity.
  • Vegetation plays a crucial role in mitigating raindrop impact by intercepting rainfall, thereby reducing soil erosion in vegetated areas.

Sheet Erosion: 

• • `thering and erosion work together to smooth out the irregularities of landforms, ultimately forming a peneplain.

Rill and Gully Erosion: 

• • Rill erosion is characterized by the formation of narrow, `d by the Grand Canyon along the Colorado River.

Coastal Erosion:

      Coastal regions experience significant soil degradation due to the relentless action of waves. The impact of cyclones, particularly during landfall, leads to storm surges that can devastate beaches and erode the uppermost soil layers. Additionally, tidal bores in estuarine environments inflict considerable damage on adjacent banks. 

Groyne for Coastal Protection: 

• • A groyne is a coastal defense structure constructed at a right angle to the shoreline (or riverbank) and extends over the beach to mitigate longshore drift and accumulate sediments.
  • This structure acts as a physical barrier, effectively intercepting the movement of sand along the coast.
  • Rock is frequently utilized as a building material; however, alternatives such as wooden groynes, steel groynes, rubble-mound groynes, sand-filled bag groynes, and concrete element groynes are also present.
  • Rock groynes are typically favored due to their enhanced durability and ability to absorb greater amounts of wave energy, attributed to their permeable characteristics.

Glacial erosion:

       It occurs in polar and high-altitude mountainous areas, such as the Himalayas, where soil erosion is driven by the gradual movement of glaciers.

Sea Erosion in India:

       As reported by the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR) in 2024, which operates under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, around 33.6% of India’s coastline is at risk of erosion, 26.9% is undergoing accretion, and 39.6% is considered stable.

Key findings of the Report:

• • Karnataka: Over the past thirty years, 48.4% of the 36.66 km coastline in Dakshina Kannada has undergone erosion.
  • West Bengal: Coastal erosion affects 60.5% of the coastline, with significant consequences for the Sundarbans region.
  • Kerala: Erosion threatens 46.4% of the coastline, posing risks to local communities and ecosystems.
  • Tamil Nadu: Erosion impacts 42.7% of the coastline, jeopardizing both infrastructure and the livelihoods of residents.

What accounts for the greater erosion observed on the Eastern Coast compared to the Western Coast? 

• • The Eastern Coast experiences more erosion primarily due to the rougher sea conditions and stronger tidal movements in the Bay of Bengal, in contrast to the calmer Arabian Sea.
  • Additionally, the Eastern Coast has been subjected to more frequent cyclonic events originating from the Bay of Bengal over the past thirty years, while the Western Coast has remained relatively stable.
  • In addition to the southwest monsoon season (June to September), the Eastern Coast is also affected by the Northeast Monsoon from October to December, which brings rainfall to coastal regions such as Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, contributing to rough sea conditions for a significant portion of the year.

Beyond natural factors, certain human activities have exacerbated erosion, including: 

• • Coastal construction, such as the development of ports.
  • Dredging activities in port areas and the disposal of dredged sediments into deep waters, which ideally should be placed along the coastline.

Approximately 28.7% of Andhra Pradesh’s coastline is experiencing varying levels of erosion, with around 28 kilometers of the coastline in Visakhapatnam—recently designated as the capital of Andhra Pradesh—being particularly vulnerable. The erosion of beaches in this area has been ongoing since the establishment of Visakhapatnam Port in the 1930s.

Erosion and Accretion:

• • Coastlines are ever-changing landforms that continuously experience processes of erosion and accretion.
  • These coastal areas are influenced by various factors, including wind, wave action, tidal movements, ocean currents, geological features, sediment availability, and human activities.
  • Accretion is defined as the growth of a coastal region, characterized by an increase in either the width or length of the shoreline.
  • While accretion is not typically viewed as destructive in the same manner as erosion, it can adversely affect deltaic ecosystems by diminishing the inland flow of water.

Strategies for Mitigating Coastal Erosion:

• • Beaches are inherently dynamic environments and should be regarded as integral components of the marine ecosystem rather than merely extensions of terrestrial land.
  • Serving as buffers, beaches absorb the impact of powerful wave action from the sea, protecting the adjacent landmass. It is essential to continuously nourish these beaches through natural processes; any disruption can lead to significant erosion, potentially resulting in detrimental effects on the land, such as the collapse of roadways.
  • The construction of a submerged breakwater approximately 500 meters offshore can dissipate wave energy and mitigate erosion caused by wave currents. Additional protective structures, including sea walls, revetments, and groynes, can also contribute to erosion control.
  • Beach Nourishment: This approach involves the extraction of sand from the ocean and its redistribution onto eroding beaches. The objective is to artificially expand the beach area by increasing the sediment supply on beaches that are experiencing a deficit.

National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR): 

• • This organization operates as a subsidiary of the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
  • Its primary function is to observe and assess changes occurring along the Indian coastline.

National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management (NCSCM): 

• • NCSCM serves as a research institution under the auspices of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
  • Its mandate is to ensure the sustainable management of the Indian coastal regions.

Desertification Setting in Across a Quarter Of India:

• • The report titled “Desertification and Land Degradation of Selected Districts of India,” released by ISRO, indicates that approximately 96.40 million hectares, which constitutes around 30 percent of India’s total land area, is experiencing degradation.
  • Furthermore, drylands cover 228.3 million hectares, accounting for 70% of the nation’s land. Out of these drylands, 82.6 million hectares, or roughly 25% of the overall land area, is affected by desertification.

Regional Factors Contributing to Desertification and Land Degradation:

• • Maharashtra: The activities of the timber mafia are depleting already limited forest resources, resulting in soil erosion.
  • Jharkhand and Odisha: Intensive mining operations have caused soil erosion and worsened water shortages.
  • Goa: Uncontrolled mining and urban expansion have adversely affected the environment.
  • Nagaland: The practice of shifting cultivation (jhum cultivation) combined with a growing population is contributing to desertification.
  • Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Hyderabad Karnataka: Prolonged droughts and an increased reliance on borewells have resulted in soil dryness.
  • Himachal Pradesh: A reduction in snowfall coupled with increased rainfall has exacerbated the desertification issue.
  • Gujarat: Overgrazing and the conversion of grasslands for agricultural purposes are significant factors in land degradation.

Deforestation due to illegal mining:

• • Illegal mining activities have resulted in significant deforestation in Goa, as highlighted by the 2018 Land Degradation and Desertification Atlas published by ISRO.
  • The demand for iron ore during the construction boom for the 2008 Olympics in China caused extensive damage to forested areas.
  • In response to the widespread illegal mining practices, the Supreme Court intervened in 2012, halting mining operations in Goa.

Apathy towards Environmental Governance: 

• • According to the Forest Survey of India’s 2017 State of Forest Report, a significant portion of Goa’s forests lies outside the officially designated forest areas.
  • The total forest cover in the state is estimated at 2,229 square kilometers, representing 60.21 percent of the state’s land.
  • However, the state forest department’s records indicate only 1,224.46 square kilometers as government-managed forest.
  • For instance, in Mopa, where the Goa government plans to construct an airport, the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) initially reported no tree cover.
  • Yet, during subsequent legal proceedings, the forest department identified 54,676 trees in the area!

Desertification in Cold Regions: 

• • High-altitude areas characterized by minimal rainfall are referred to as cold deserts. Approximately 80 percent of India’s cold desert region is located in the union territory of Ladakh, with the remainder found in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
  • There is substantial evidence indicating an increase in desertification within the trans-Himalayan regions, manifested through shifting tree lines, migrating sand dunes, and alterations in soil moisture levels.

The area of grasslands has diminished by 31%, equating to a loss of 12.3 million hectares, from a total of 18 million hectares between 2005 and 2015.

    Notably, the grasslands in the Aravalli range of Rajasthan have experienced significant degradation. During the same timeframe, approximately 19% of common lands were lost, decreasing from 90.5 million hectares to 73.02 million hectares.

    Common lands encompass grazing areas, certain forested regions, ponds, rivers, and other spaces accessible to all members of rural communities.

According to the State of India’s Environment (SoE) Report 2019:

• • This report says, desertification has escalated in 26 out of 29 states from 2003-05 to 2011-13.
  • Although India pledged to achieve land degradation neutrality by 2030, the country saw an increase of 1.87 million hectares affected by desertification during this period.
  • Over 80% of the degraded land is concentrated in nine states: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Telangana.
  • The districts most severely impacted by desertification or land degradation include Jaisalmer (93%), Lahaul and Spiti (80%), and Kargil (78%).