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Impacts of India’s Coal Sector Syllabus:Geography Context Despite India’s push towards renewable energy, coal continues to dominate the country’s energy mix. Recent expert discussions and findings from National Green Tribunal (NGT) cases highlight the urgent need to evaluate coal mining not just in terms of environmental damage but also its significant health impacts on local communities.   Coal’s Role in India’s Energy Mix Dominance in Power Generation: Coal and lignite contributed nearly 73% of India’s electricity in 2022–23. Future Projections: Even by 2031–32, coal is expected to provide around 50% of electricity, indicating long-term dependence. Policy Dilemma: While renewable expansion is underway, coal remains central for base-load power and energy security, necessitating stronger governance.   Environmental and Health Challenges Pollution from Mining and Thermal Plants Air: Coal transport and handling increase PM10 levels up to 5 times above safe limits. Water & Soil: Fly ash disposal contaminates rivers, groundwater, and croplands, reducing fertility. Biodiversity: Aquatic ecosystems, fisheries, and forests face degradation. Public Health Hazards Heavy metals like cadmium and lead → linked to cancers. Silica-rich fly ash → causes silicosis and chronic respiratory illness. Overall → increased disease burden, medical costs, and livelihood losses for local populations.   Regulatory and Legal Issues NGT Findings: Widespread violation of pollution norms by coal operators. Weak enforcement and regulatory capture by industries. Low community participation in Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA). Compensation Challenges: Often delayed, inadequately calculated, and poorly disbursed. Victims rarely receive timely or fair compensation. Principle of Absolute Liability: Reiterated by NGT, but implementation remains weak.   Environmental Restoration Efforts Judicial Interventions: Orders for river decontamination, fly ash clean-up, and mangrove restoration. Dedicated restoration funds set aside in some rulings. Implementation Gaps: Delays in execution, absence of strict timelines, and weak monitoring. Without effective follow-through, environmental degradation and health risks continue unabated.   Way Forward Strengthening pollution monitoring and enforcement mechanisms. Integrating health assessments into coal mining approvals. Ensuring time-bound restoration plans with transparent fund utilization. Enhancing community participation to improve accountability. Accelerating renewable energy adoption to reduce coal dependency gradually. Consider the following statements regarding India’s coal sector: Coal and lignite together contribute more than two-thirds of India’s electricity generation. Even under India’s current renewable expansion targets, coal is projected to supply at least half of India’s electricity by 2031–32. Silica present in fly ash has been associated with respiratory diseases such as silicosis. The National Green Tribunal (NGT) applies the principle of “strict liability” rather than “absolute liability” in coal pollution cases. Which of the above statements are correct? A) 1, 2 and 3 onlyB) 2 and 4 onlyC) 1, 3 and 4 onlyD) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3 onlyExplanation: True – Coal and lignite contribute ~73% of India’s power → more than two-thirds. True – Projected ~50% share by 2031–32. True – Silica in fly ash causes silicosis. False – NGT applies absolute liability (not strict liability). Global Progress and Inequalities in Water Sanitation Syllabus:Society Context The World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF released a 2025 report reviewing global progress in water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). While significant improvements have been recorded since 2000, deep inequalities continue to undermine the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) — universal access to safe water and sanitation by 2030.     Current Status of Sanitation and Open Defecation Progress achieved (2015–2024): 2 billion people gained access to safely managed sanitation. Global coverage increased from 48% (2015) to 58% (2024). Nearly 60% of the world’s population now uses toilets with safe waste treatment. Regional variation: Developed countries: Nearly universal coverage. Latin America, Caribbean, Eastern & South-Eastern Asia: Open defecation eliminated. Northern Africa & Western Asia: Near elimination achieved. Low-income countries: Open defecation rates remain four times higher than global average.   Drinking Water Access and Disparities Global coverage (2015–2024): Rose from 68% to 74%. Rural areas: Increased from 50% to 60% (10% rise). Urban areas: Stable at 83%. Inequalities: Least developed countries (LDCs): Over twice as likely to lack safely managed water compared to global average. Rural vs. Urban: Urban populations still ahead, but rural regions improving faster.   Inequalities in WASH Access Social dimensions of inequality: Rural populations, ethnic minorities, indigenous groups, children, women, and disabled persons remain disproportionately affected. Gender impact: Women and girls bear higher burdens, often spending hours daily collecting water. Infrastructure gaps: Communities with road access fare better than isolated ones. Data limitations: National statistics often mask intra-country disparities, necessitating alternative data collection to ensure “leave no one behind” principle.   Required Scale of Action to Achieve SDG 6 Acceleration targets: Lower-middle-income countries: Must double progress rates. Low-income countries: Require a 7-fold increase in water access and an 18-fold increase in sanitation and hygiene services.   Imperatives: Rapid scale-up in infrastructure. Prioritisation of marginalised and vulnerable communities. Recognition of WASH as a fundamental human right requiring urgent, inclusive action. With reference to the progress in sanitation between 2015 and 2024, consider the following statements: More than one billion people gained access to safely managed sanitation during this period. Global coverage of safely managed sanitation rose by over 10 percentage points in the last decade. Developed countries, Latin America, and Eastern Asia have achieved near universal elimination of open defecation. Which of the above statements is/are correct? Options:A. 1 and 2 onlyB. 2 and 3 onlyC. 1 and 3 onlyD. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D Explanation: 1 is correct:2 billion gained access. 2 is correct: From 48% to 58% = 10 percentage point increase. 3 is correct: Developed countries ≈ universal; Latin America, Caribbean, Eastern & SE Asia = elimination; Northern Africa/Western Asia = near elimination. Climate Change Impact on Gangotri Glacier System Syllabus:Geography Context Recent scientific assessments highlight significant climate change impacts on the Gangotri Glacier System (GGS), a vital Himalayan glacier that sustains the Ganga River. Rising temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns have altered its hydrology, with cascading effects on water security, agriculture, and hydropower in northern India.   Features of the Gangotri Glacier System Geographical Significance: