INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1942-47)
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (1942)
The Quit India Movement, famously known as the August Revolution, marked one of the most decisive phases in India’s freedom struggle. It was launched in response to the failure of the Cripps Mission (1942) and the urgent need for complete British withdrawal from India during the Second World War.
Unlike earlier campaigns, this movement was notable for its spontaneous, decentralised, and leaderless character, where mass participation surged beyond Congress’s direct control. Its aim was twofold: to secure immediate independence and to prepare for non-violent resistance against a possible Japanese invasion.
Background and Responsible Factors
Several developments in the early 1940s pushed the national movement towards confrontation:
- Failure of the Cripps Mission (1942) – The British refusal to grant complete independence and their insistence on retaining control over defence exposed their unwillingness to make real concessions.
- Economic Distress – Wartime inflation, acute shortages of essential goods, and rumours of a scorched-earth policy in eastern India created fear and resentment.
- British Military Setbacks – The fall of Singapore, Rangoon (Burma), and other Southeast Asian territories heightened fears of a Japanese invasion of India.
- Financial Insecurity – Panic withdrawals from banks, gold hoarding, and rising black-market activity deepened public anxiety.
- Regional Disparities – The movement found particularly strong roots in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, but remained relatively weak in Madras Presidency.
Wardha Meeting and the Quit India Resolution
- Date – July 14, 1942: The Congress Working Committee (CWC) met at Wardha and passed the Quit India Resolution, empowering Mahatma Gandhi to lead a non-violent mass struggle for British withdrawal.
- Proposed by – Jawaharlal Nehru; Seconded by – Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
- The resolution was later ratified at the All India Congress Committee (AICC) meeting held at Gowalia Tank Maidan (August Kranti Maidan), Bombay, on August 8, 1942.
- Gandhi was convinced that the time was ripe for decisive action, stating that half-measures would no longer suffice.
Kurnool Circular (July 29, 1942)
- Issued by the Provincial Congress Committee of Andhra, drafted by Kala Venkat Rao, and sent for CWC approval through Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramaiah.
- Provided strategic guidelines for the movement’s conduct.
- Seized by the police during a raid on the Kurnool Congress Office, revealing British intelligence’s proactive suppression efforts.
The Gowalia Tank Resolution (August 8, 1942)
The All India Congress Committee (AICC), meeting at Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay (now August Kranti Maidan), adopted the historic Quit India Resolution on August 8, 1942. The resolution contained four key demands:
- Immediate and Complete British Withdrawal from India, without delay or preconditions.
- A solemn pledge by Free India to fight against fascism and imperialism in all forms.
- Formation of a Provisional National Government upon the British departure to guide the country towards a democratic future.
- Granting full authority to launch Civil Disobedience on a mass scale if the British refused to accept these demands.
Mahatma Gandhi, in his emotionally charged address, gave the movement its immortal slogan — “Do or Die” — urging Indians to dedicate themselves wholly to the cause of freedom, even at the cost of their lives.
Gandhi’s Direct Instructions to Different Sections of Society
- Hindus & Muslims – Discard communal animosity and work together in the spirit of national unity.
- Government Servants – Continue in service if necessary but maintain loyalty to the Congress and the nationalist cause.
- Indian Soldiers – Refrain from firing on fellow countrymen and support the movement morally.
- Students – Leave educational institutions if prepared to actively contribute to the struggle.
- Peasants – Refuse payment of rent to pro-government zamindars and landlords.
- Princes and Rulers – Align with the people’s aspirations and stand against colonial domination.
Course of the Movement
British Repression and Mass Arrests (August 9, 1942)
Within mere hours of passing the resolution, the British administration acted with swiftness and severity. Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, and the entire top Congress leadership were arrested. The Congress was declared illegal under the Criminal Law Amendment Act, and public meetings were prohibited under Rule 56 of the Defence of India Rules.
Aruna Asaf Ali’s Symbolic Defiance
In the absence of senior leaders, Aruna Asaf Ali emerged as the symbol of resistance. She hoisted the tricolour at the Gowalia Tank Maidan, inspiring crowds and signalling that the movement would not be silenced by repression.
Forms of Public Protest
- Sabotage and Direct Action – Destruction of railway tracks, bridges, telegraph lines, and other communication networks, especially in Eastern U.P. and Bihar, to disrupt British control.
- Student and Worker Strikes – General strikes paralysed industries in Ahmedabad, Bombay, Jamshedpur, and Poona. Students played a crucial role in circulating underground literature and organising protests.
- Underground Resistance – With leaders jailed, underground networks coordinated activities from safe houses, evading British surveillance.
- Usha Mehta’s Congress Radio – An illegal, underground radio broadcast from Bombay that kept the spirit of resistance alive and spread nationalist messages, often changing locations to avoid detection.
Prominent Underground Leaders
- Aruna Asaf Ali – “Heroine of the August Revolution” for defying British orders and inspiring the youth.
- Jayaprakash Narayan & Rammanohar Lohia – Orchestrated underground resistance in Bihar.
- Usha Mehta – Operated the clandestine Congress Radio to counter British propaganda.
- Biju Patnaik – Used his aviation skills to transport literature and messages.
- Achyut Patwardhan & Sucheta Kripalani – Mobilised workers, students, and women in various provinces.
Significance of the Quit India Resolution
- Marked the last great mass uprising before independence in 1947.
- Proved that British rule was sustained largely through force and was vulnerable to mass defiance.
- Though the movement was brutally suppressed by 1944, it created irreversible political momentum for independence.
- Fostered unprecedented unity across regions, communities, and social classes, making it clear that India’s demand for freedom was now non-negotiable.
Parallel Governments during the Quit India Movement:
Parallel Government | Leader(s) | Time Period | Activities |
Ballia | Chittu Pandey | August 1942 | Secured the release of numerous Congress leaders; functioned as a parallel government for a week. |
Tamluk – Jatiya Sarkar (Midnapore) | — | Dec 1942 – Sep 1944 | Engaged in cyclone relief efforts, allocated grants to schools, provided paddy from the affluent to the needy, organised Vidyut Vahinis. |
Satara – Prati Sarkar | Y. B. Chavan, Nana Patil, etc. | Mid-1943 – 1945 | Established village libraries, created Nyayadan Mandals, conducted prohibition campaigns, arranged ‘Gandhi marriages’; popularly known as “Prati Sarkar.” |
Aspect | Details |
Youth | Students, especially from schools and colleges, played a prominent role. |
Women | Women, particularly school and college girls, were actively engaged. Notable figures included Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani, and Usha Mehta. |
Workers | Strikes occurred in cities like Ahmedabad, Bombay, Jamshedpur, Ahmednagar, and Poona. The labour class, however, did not broadly engage. |
Peasants | Peasants from various strata were central to the movement. Attacks were directed at symbols of authority, with no anti-zamindar violence reported. |
Government Officials | Lower-level government officials, including police, participated, indicating a decline in loyalty to the British government. |
Muslims | Muslims provided shelter to underground activists, with no communal clashes occurring during the movement. |
Communists | The Communist Party refrained from participation, aligning instead with the British war effort following the Nazi attack on Russia. |
Muslim League | Opposed the movement, expressing concerns over potential minority oppression if the British withdrew. |
Hindu Mahasabha | Boycotted the movement, reflecting its distinct political stance. |
Princely States | Exhibited a subdued response to the movement, showing limited engagement. |
Government’s Response to the Quit India Movement (1942)
The British administration reacted to the Quit India Movement with unprecedented repression, aiming to crush the uprising before it could gather full momentum.
- August 9, 1942 – Within hours of the resolution’s adoption, all top Congress leaders including Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Vallabhbhai Patel were arrested and transported to undisclosed, high-security locations.
- Congress organisations outlawed – The Congress Working Committee (CWC), All India Congress Committee (AICC), and all Provincial Congress Committees were declared unlawful associations under the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1908.
- Martial law was not formally imposed, but in practice, extraordinary powers were exercised by civil and military authorities.
- Harsh repressive measures included lathi (baton) charges, tear gas attacks, and indiscriminate police firing on crowds.
- Casualties – The movement witnessed an estimated 10,000 deaths due to police and military violence.
- Press censorship – Freedom of the press was severely curtailed, with nationalist newspapers shut down and editors imprisoned.
- Military control – In several cities, the military assumed direct control, while police and intelligence services exercised near-absolute authority.
- Collective punishments – Villages that defied British orders faced hefty fines, mass floggings, and even large-scale property confiscations.
Gandhi’s Fast (February 1943)
- Cause – The British demanded that Gandhi condemn violent acts committed during the movement. Gandhi refused to single out the protesters and instead chose to protest the state’s own violent repression.
- Nature of Protest – Gandhi undertook a 21-day fast while in detention.
- Public Response – The fast evoked massive domestic and international sympathy, sparking hartals, demonstrations, and strikes across the country.
- Political Fallout – Three members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council resigned in protest, signalling internal dissent within the colonial administration.
- Impact – The fast boosted public morale, intensified anti-British sentiment, and re-energised political activism across India. It also exposed the authoritarian and repressive nature of colonial rule to the global audience.
Pakistan Day (March 23, 1943)
- On March 23, 1943, the Muslim League observed Pakistan Day, reaffirming its demand for a separate sovereign state for Muslims as articulated in the Lahore Resolution (1940).
- The event highlighted the deepening political polarisation between Congress and the Muslim League during the Quit India period.
The Bengal Famine of 1943
One of the most devastating human tragedies under British rule occurred during the movement’s peak.
- Worst-affected areas – Southwestern Bengal, particularly Tamluk, Contai, Diamond Harbour, Dacca, Faridpur, Tippera, and Noakhali.
- Death toll – Between 5 and 3 million people died due to starvation, malnutrition, and epidemics such as malaria, cholera, and smallpox.
- Key Causes –
- Diversion of food supplies to feed the British Army during WWII.
- Cessation of rice imports from Burma and Southeast Asia due to the Japanese advance.
- Gross mismanagement by colonial authorities, combined with profiteering by traders.
- Delayed and urban-centric rationing, which left rural areas without relief.
- The famine became a symbol of British callousness, further discrediting colonial rule in the eyes of the Indian masses.
Individual Efforts to Resolve the Constitutional Crisis
Rajagopalachari (CR) Formula – 1944
Proposed by C. Rajagopalachari to bridge the gap between Congress and the Muslim League, the plan was a tacit recognition of the League’s demand for Pakistan.
Key Provisions –
- Congress-League Cooperation – The Muslim League would support the Congress’s demand for full independence.
- Provisional Government – Both parties would jointly form an interim government at the Centre during the war.
- Post-war Plebiscite – In Muslim-majority areas of the North-West and North-East, a plebiscite would be held to decide whether they wished to form a separate sovereign state.
- Post-partition Agreement – Both entities would have joint arrangements for defence, commerce, and communications.
- Voluntary Population Transfer – Any migration would be voluntary, avoiding forced displacement.
- British Transfer of Power – Implementation depended on Britain’s immediate and complete transfer of powers to India.
Reactions –
- Gandhi supported the plan, signalling Congress’s willingness to negotiate.
- Jinnah rejected it, demanding acceptance of the Two-Nation Theory, limiting plebiscites to Muslims only, and opposing a common central authority.
- Hindu Mahasabha under Vir Savarkar condemned it as a surrender to separatism.
Gandhi–Jinnah Talks (1944)
Following his release from detention on May 5, 1944, Mahatma Gandhi initiated direct negotiations with Muhammad Ali Jinnah, basing the dialogue on the C. Rajagopalachari (CR) Formula. The talks aimed to bridge the deepening rift between the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, but they instead exposed the irreconcilable ideological differences between the two parties.
- Gandhi’s Position – Strongly opposed the Two-Nation Theory, insisting on the vision of a united and independent India. Gandhi argued that independence should be for all Indians, irrespective of religion, and rejected any constitutional arrangement that would permanently divide the country on communal lines.
- Jinnah’s Position – Asserted the Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan as the only acceptable solution, claiming that Muslims were a distinct nation entitled to full self-determination. He demanded that any plebiscite in Muslim-majority provinces be restricted to Muslim voters only, excluding non-Muslims from the decision-making process.
Key Deadlocks –
- Scope of the Plebiscite – Gandhi proposed that the entire population of Muslim-majority provinces be consulted, while Jinnah insisted it be limited to Muslims alone.
- Structure of the Central Authority – Gandhi envisioned a strong central government for defence, foreign affairs, and communications, whereas Jinnah favoured minimal central control if Pakistan came into being.
Outcome
After nearly two weeks of discussions, the talks collapsed without agreement. The episode deepened mistrust, hardened communal positions, and signalled that the political impasse was far from being resolved.
Desai–Liaquat Pact (1945)
In early 1945, an informal political understanding was attempted between Bhula Bhai Desai (representing Congress) and Liaquat Ali Khan (representing the Muslim League). The aim was to reduce political tensions and agree on a provisional central government framework until a permanent settlement could be reached.
Key Proposals –
- Equal Representation – Congress and the Muslim League would have equal numbers in the Central Legislature for the interim period.
- Minority Safeguards – 20% of seats would be reserved for minority communities other than Hindus and Muslims.
Outcome
No formal agreement was signed. While the pact demonstrated a potential willingness to move towards parity between the two parties, deep-rooted political distrust prevented its realisation.
The Wavell Plan (1945)
With the end of World War II in Europe, the British government sought to resolve India’s constitutional deadlock. Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, proposed a new plan to bring Congress and the League together in a shared governing arrangement.
British Motives –
- Upcoming British General Elections – The ruling Conservative Party wanted to project an image of being committed to solving the Indian issue.
- Allied Pressure – The Allies urged greater Indian political cooperation in the ongoing war against Japan.
- Strategic Aim – To maintain British influence while making concessions that appeared conciliatory.
Main Provisions of the Wavell Plan –
- All members of the Viceroy’s Executive Council, except the Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief, to be Indians.
- Equal representation in the Executive Council for caste Hindus and Muslims.
- Interim government to function under the Government of India Act, 1935.
- The Governor-General’s veto power would remain but be exercised on ministerial advice.
- Parties could nominate members jointly or from separate lists.
- Post-war discussions would finalise a new constitutional framework.
Shimla Conference (June 1945)
To implement the Wavell Plan, Lord Wavell convened a conference at Shimla in June 1945, inviting the Congress and the Muslim League.
Muslim League’s Stand –
- All Muslim members of the Executive Council must be League nominees.
- Decisions affecting Muslim interests should require a two-thirds majority veto power.
Congress’s Stand –
- Congress should have the right to nominate members from all communities, not be restricted to representing only caste Hindus.
Breakdown of Talks –
- Wavell prematurely declared the conference a failure, effectively granting the Muslim League a de facto veto over future arrangements.
- The collapse of negotiations strengthened Jinnah’s bargaining position and further deepened communal divisions, influencing the outcome of the 1945–46 provincial elections in favour of the League.
Subhas Chandra Bose and the INA Movement
Early Life and Education
- Birth: January 23, 1897, Cuttack, Orissa (now Odisha).
- Family Background: Born into a prominent and educated Bengali family. His father, Janakinath Bose, was a respected lawyer, and his elder brother, Sarat Chandra Bose, later emerged as a key figure in India’s freedom struggle.
- Education: Bose displayed exceptional academic talent from a young age. After schooling in Cuttack and Calcutta, he moved to England, securing a degree in Philosophy from Cambridge University in 1919. He also qualified for the Indian Civil Services (ICS) but resigned in 1921, driven by his nationalist ideals.
Role in the Indian National Movement
- Entry into Politics: Bose joined the Indian National Congress (INC) in the 1920s, aligning initially with the younger radical wing. He opposed Mahatma Gandhi’s gradualist approach and strongly advocated immediate independence.
- Presidency of the INC:
- Elected Congress President in 1938 (Haripura Session) — emphasised industrialisation, planning, and a socialist economic framework.
- Re-elected in 1939 (Tripuri Session) but resigned soon after due to ideological differences with Gandhi and the right-wing faction.
- Formation of the Forward Bloc: Founded in May 1939 to consolidate the left-wing within the Congress and pursue aggressive anti-colonial action.
Ideology and Vision
- Advocated complete independence (Purna Swaraj) as a non-negotiable objective.
- Anti-imperialist and socialist outlook — envisioned a secular, egalitarian India.
- Supported armed struggle as a legitimate means against British rule.
- During World War II, sought alliances with Germany and Japan to liberate India.
- Slogan: “Give me blood, and I will give you freedom” — became a rallying cry for revolutionaries.
- Death: Officially reported to have died in a plane crash on August 18, 1945, in Taipei — circumstances remain controversial.
Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army – INA)
- Initial Formation (1941): Organised by Captain Mohan Singh from captured Indian soldiers in Malaya with Japanese backing.
- Indian Independence League: Led by Rash Behari Bose, who coordinated expatriate Indians in East Asia for the nationalist cause.
Subhas Chandra Bose’s Leadership
- Arrived in Singapore in July 1943; assumed Supreme Command of the INA.
- Proclaimed the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind Government) on October 21, 1943 in Singapore — recognised by Axis powers.
- Key appointments included C. Chatterjee (Finance) and Lakshmi Swaminathan (Women’s Regiment – Rani Jhansi Regiment).
Military Campaigns
- Headquarters: Shifted to Rangoon (January 1944).
- “Chalo Delhi” Call: INA marched towards India via Burma.
- Andaman & Nicobar Islands: Handed over by Japan in November 1943; renamed Shaheed Dweep and Swaraj Dweep.
- Imphal Campaign (1944): INA forces crossed into Manipur; INA flag hoisted at Moirang on April 14, 1944.
- Campaign faced severe shortages, discrimination from Japanese command, and eventual retreat (July 1944).
- Following Japan’s surrender (August 15, 1945), the INA also surrendered.
Post-War Political Scenario (1945)
Shifting British Policy
- Lifting of Ban on Congress: June 1945 — leaders released.
- Failure of Wavell Plan: No consensus between Congress and Muslim League.
- Labour Party Government: Came to power in Britain (July 1945) under Clement Attlee, with Pethick Lawrence as Secretary of State for India.
- Announcement of Elections: August 1945 — central and provincial elections, followed by a Constituent Assembly (Cripps Offer principles).
Factors Behind Policy Shift
- Decline of UK as a world power; rise of USA and USSR supporting decolonisation.
- British economic crisis — owed £1.2 billion to India.
- Fear of agrarian uprisings and unrest in armed forces after INA trials.
- Global anti-imperialist movements in Vietnam and Indonesia.
INA Trials and Mass Movement
- First public trial at Red Fort in November 1945 — accused: Prem Kumar Sehgal, Shah Nawaz Khan, Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon — symbolised Hindu-Muslim-Sikh unity.
- Nationwide campaign for INA release — supported by Congress, Muslim League, Communists, Akalis, Hindu Mahasabha.
- INA Day (November 12, 1945) and INA Week (November 5–11) saw widespread hartals, rallies, and fundraising.
- The agitation questioned Britain’s moral right to rule India.
Three Upsurges (Winter 1945–46)
- Calcutta Protest (November 21, 1945) — students clashed with police over INA trials.
- Calcutta Demonstration (February 11, 1946) — against sentencing of INA officer Rashid Ali.
- Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny (February 18, 1946) — 1,100 sailors in Bombay struck against racial discrimination; joined by Royal Indian Air Force units and civilian protests.
Impact of RIN Mutiny:
- Showed the fragility of British control over armed forces.
- Garnered support from both Congress and Muslim League.
- Increased international pressure for British withdrawal.
Elections of 1945–46
- Congress: 91% of non-Muslim vote; majority in most provinces except Bengal, Sindh, Punjab.
- Muslim League:6% of Muslim vote; swept Muslim-reserved seats; majority in Bengal & Sindh.
- Elections reflected communal polarisation due to separate electorates.
Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)
- Members: Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander.
- Aim: Ensure transfer of power while preventing partition.
- Proposals:
- Grouping of provinces into Group A (Hindu-majority), Group B & C (Muslim-majority).
- Three-tier federal structure — Union, Groups, Provinces.
- Constituent Assembly with 389 members.
- Congress View: Opposed compulsory grouping.
- Muslim League View: Saw grouping as a path to Pakistan.
- Outcome: Initially accepted by both but League withdrew on July 29, 1946, calling for Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946) — triggering communal riots.
Interim Government (1946–47)
- Formed on September 2, 1946, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Muslim League joined in October 1946 but adopted an obstructionist stance — Finance Minister Liaqat Ali Khan restricted Congress ministries.
- League boycotted the Constituent Assembly’s first meeting (December 9, 1946).
- Increasing hostility signalled the inevitability of Partition.
Name | Ministry |
Jawaharlal Nehru | • Vice President of the Executive Council • External Affairs • Commonwealth Relations |
Vallabhbhai Patel | • Home • Information and Broadcasting |
Baldev Singh | • Defence |
C. Rajagopalachari | • Education |
C.H. Bhabha | • Works, Mines, and Power |
Rajendra Prasad | • Agriculture and Food |
Jagjivan Ram | • Labour |
Asaf Ali | • Railways |
Dr. John Mathai | • Industries and Supplies |
Liaquat Ali Khan (Muslim League) | • Finance |
Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar (Muslim League) | • Commerce |
Abdur Rab Nishtar (Muslim League) | • Communications |
Ghazanfar Ali Khan (Muslim League) | • Health |
Jogendra Nath Mandal (Muslim League) | • Law |
Wavell’s ‘Breakdown Plan’ and the Final Phase of British Rule (1946–1947)
By mid-1946, political negotiations in India had reached a deadlock. The Cabinet Mission Plan had failed to bridge the widening gap between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League, particularly on the issues of grouping of provinces and the future constitutional framework. Amid escalating communal tensions and the threat of civil conflict, Viceroy Lord Wavell devised a last-resort strategy known as the ‘Breakdown Plan’.
The Breakdown Plan (May 1946)
Lord Wavell presented this plan to the British Cabinet Mission as a contingency in case constitutional discussions collapsed entirely.
Key Features:
- Withdrawal of British Forces and Officials: The British Army and administrative officers would withdraw to Muslim-majority provinces in the North-West and North-East, effectively abandoning direct control over the rest of India.
- Transfer of Power to Congress: In non-Muslim majority areas, power would be handed over to a Congress-led administration.
- Acknowledgement of Reality: Recognised that repressing a Congress-led revolt was no longer militarily or politically viable.
- Partition Inclination: Some British strategists supported creating a Pakistan-like division, similar to Northern Ireland’s separation from the rest of Ireland.
While the plan was never officially implemented, it reflected the British acknowledgment of their weakening control and the increasing inevitability of India’s partition.
Independence with Partition:
British Imperialist View
From Britain’s standpoint, granting independence was seen as the culmination of their “mission” to guide India towards self-government. Partition was portrayed as an unavoidable outcome of the Hindu-Muslim divide and the failure to agree on a joint power-sharing formula.
Radical Interpretation
Some historians argue that mass upsurges in 1946–47—including the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny, labour strikes, and peasant revolts—shook the foundations of British authority. According to this view:
- Communist and leftist forces played a leading role in mobilising discontent.
- The Congress leadership, fearing revolutionary escalation, negotiated a transfer of power that involved compromises on national unity.
Political Developments Preceding Partition
- Hindu Mahasabha explored creating a separate Hindu province in West Bengal.
- Attlee’s Statement (20 February 1947):
- Announced that British rule in India would end by 30 June 1948, regardless of a constitutional settlement.
- Power could be transferred either to a central authority or directly to provincial governments in Muslim-majority areas.
- British responsibility for princely states would end, hinting at fragmentation risks similar to the Cripps Offer.
- Triggered violence in Punjab, collapse of Khizr Hayat Khan’s coalition government, and pushed the Congress closer to accepting partition.
By April 1947, J.B. Kripalani publicly indicated that Congress could accept Pakistan to prevent civil war, provided there was a fair partition of Punjab and Bengal.
Lord Mountbatten’s Arrival and the Path to Partition
Lord Louis Mountbatten assumed office as Viceroy on 24 March 1947. Unlike his predecessors, he had:
- Full authority for on-the-spot decisions.
- A clear mandate to complete the transfer of power quickly.
Recognising that Jinnah was uncompromising on Pakistan, Mountbatten abandoned hopes of reviving the Cabinet Mission Plan.
The Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947)
The Mountbatten Plan, also called the Plan for the Transfer of Power, was the final framework for ending British rule in India. It laid down the political, administrative, and territorial arrangements for India’s independence, while simultaneously addressing the demand for Pakistan.
Main Provisions
1. Partition of Punjab and Bengal
- The Provincial Legislative Assemblies of both provinces were to vote in separate sittings as Hindu-majority and Muslim-majority
- If a simple majority in either group favoured partition, the province would be divided along communal lines.
2. Creation of Two Dominions
- Two sovereign dominions—India and Pakistan—would be created.
- Each dominion would have its own Constituent Assembly to frame its constitution.
3. Sindh’s Decision
- The Sindh Legislative Assembly was empowered to decide whether Sindh would join India or Pakistan.
4. Referendums in Specific Areas
- North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and the Sylhet district of Assam would hold plebiscites to decide their accession.
5. Princely States
- All princely states were to accede to either India or Pakistan; the option of complete independence was explicitly ruled out.
6. Date of Independence
- 15 August 1947 was fixed as the date for the formal transfer of power.
7. Boundary Commissions
- Independent commissions were set up for Punjab and Bengal to demarcate borders between the two new dominions.
Congress Concessions
While abandoning the ideal of a united India, the Congress ensured:
- Prevention of independent princely states.
- Rejection of Bengal’s proposal for separate independence.
- Prevention of Hyderabad’s accession to Pakistan (with Mountbatten’s support).
- Immediate independence rather than a prolonged interim period.
Reasons for Early Transfer of Power
- The British wanted to reward Congress for accepting dominion status.
- Avoid responsibility for escalating communal violence.
- Fear that administrative collapse could occur if the transfer was delayed.
- Mountbatten believed speed would reduce political resistance.
Reactions to the Plan
- Mahatma Gandhi: Deeply pained by the idea of partition; urged Indians to reject it in favour of unity.
- Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: Strongly opposed the Congress leadership’s acceptance, calling it a capitulation to communal division.
- Muslim League: Welcomed the plan as the realisation of Pakistan, though sought maximum territorial advantage.
Execution of the Mountbatten Plan
- Punjab & Bengal Assemblies: Voted in favour of partition.
- Sylhet Referendum: Majority voted to merge with East Bengal (Pakistan).
- Radcliffe Commission:
- Chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, tasked with finalising the Radcliffe Line.
- Boundaries were announced on 17 August 1947, two days after independence—a deliberate delay to avoid British accountability for post-partition violence.
Indian Independence Act, 1947
The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act on 18 July 1947, giving legal effect to the Mountbatten Plan.
Key Provisions:
- Creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan.
- Each dominion to have its own Governor-General as the King’s representative.
- Government of India Act, 1935 to remain in force until new constitutions were adopted.
- Dates of independence: Pakistan on 14 August and India on 15 August 1947.
Integration of Princely States
At independence, India had over 560 princely states with varying sizes and levels of autonomy. Their integration was handled in two phases:
1. Instrument of Accession (August 1947)
- All states except Jammu & Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Junagadh signed the Instrument, ceding control over defence, foreign affairs, and communications.
2. Internal Consolidation
- Smaller states were merged to form viable administrative units like Kathiawar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh.
- Privy purses were granted as compensation to rulers.
- Many princes were appointed as Governors or Rajpramukhs in the new Indian Union.
Travancore
- Travancore was among the first princely states to refuse accession to the Indian Union.
- Sir C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar, the Dewan of Travancore, declared that the state would remain independent after British withdrawal.
- Travancore possessed rich mineral resources, especially monazite, from which thorium—a vital material for nuclear reactors and atomic weapons—could be extracted.
- It is widely believed that Sir C.P. Aiyar maintained secret ties with the British government, which supported Travancore’s independence in exchange for exclusive access to monazite, potentially giving Britain a nuclear advantage.
- However, after negotiations with the Indian government and mounting pressure, Travancore acceded to India on 30 July 1947.
Manipur
- Just days before independence, Maharaja Bodhachandra Singh signed the Instrument of Accession with the Indian government on the assurance that Manipur’s internal autonomy would be respected.
- Under public pressure, the Maharaja introduced constitutional reforms and held elections in June 1948, making Manipur the first part of India to hold elections based on universal adult franchise.
- Political divisions emerged—while the Manipur State Congress supported full merger with India, other parties opposed it.
- In September 1949, the Government of India signed the Merger Agreement with the Maharaja without consulting the elected Legislative Assembly, causing widespread resentment—the effects of which continue to be felt in the region.
Junagadh
- Nawab Muhammad Mahabat Khanji III of Junagadh ruled over a majority Hindu population but decided to accede to Pakistan in 1947.
- This led to political unrest and economic collapse in the state. Eventually, the Nawab fled to Karachi.
- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel deployed troops to secure Junagadh and its surrounding principalities.
- Facing financial crisis and lack of resources, Junagadh’s Dewan agreed to join India.
- A plebiscite held on 20 February 1948 revealed that 91% of voters supported accession to India.
Jammu and Kashmir
- Before independence, Maharaja Hari Singh sought to keep Jammu and Kashmir independent.
- Pakistan claimed the state due to its Muslim-majority population, but Sheikh Abdullah and the National Conference opposed joining Pakistan.
- In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal invaders to capture Kashmir, prompting the Maharaja to seek Indian military assistance.
- On 26 October 1947, the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession to India in exchange for military aid.
- The Indian Army launched operations to push back the invaders, securing the Kashmir Valley.
Hyderabad
- In 1947, Osman Ali Khan Asaf Jah VII, the last Nizam of Hyderabad, refused to join India and sought independence.
- The people of Hyderabad, under the leadership of Swami Ramanand Tirtha, launched a movement demanding accession to India.
- The Nizam relied on his private militia, the Razakars, who engaged in widespread atrocities—torture, looting, arson, and suppression of dissent.
- A Standstill Agreement was signed with India on 29 November 1947, but the Razakar violence escalated.
Operation Polo – Hyderabad’s Accession
- By September 1948, the Indian government concluded that peaceful settlement was impossible.
- On 13 September 1948, the Indian Army launched ‘Operation Polo’ (also called Operation Caterpillar) to integrate Hyderabad.
- Within five days, the Nizam surrendered (18 September 1948), and Hyderabad became part of India.
- The Indian Army was welcomed by the people as a force of liberation, ending the Razakar terror and Nizam’s oppressive rule.
Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory
The Two-Nation Theory was the ideological foundation for the creation of Pakistan in 1947. It asserted that Hindus and Muslims in India were two distinct political, cultural, and social entities, and therefore could not coexist within a single nation-state. This theory evolved gradually over several decades, shaped by colonial policies, communal politics, and strategic manoeuvring by both the British and communal leaders.
Early Roots of Communal Politics (1880s–1900s)
- 1887 – Lord Dufferin & Sir Auckland Colvin’s Anti-Congress Strategy:
The British, alarmed by the rising influence of the Indian National Congress (INC), adopted a policy of ‘Divide and Rule’.
- 1887 – Lord Dufferin & Sir Auckland Colvin’s Anti-Congress Strategy:
- They encouraged prominent Muslims, such as Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, to stay away from Congress politics, portraying the INC as a Hindu-dominated body that could not safeguard Muslim interests.
- Despite this, a small section of Muslims did participate in the Congress.
- 1906 – The Shimla Delegation & Formation of the All India Muslim League:
- A 35-member Muslim delegation, led by Aga Khan, met Lord Minto in Shimla to demand separate electorates for Muslims.
- This led to the formation of the All India Muslim League (AIML) at Dacca in December 1906, with the declared aim of supporting British rule while safeguarding Muslim political rights.
- 1909 – Morley-Minto Reforms:
- Granted separate electorates for Muslims, institutionalising communal representation in Indian politics.
- This marked a major victory for the League, as it provided state recognition to communal identities.
- 1909 – Morley-Minto Reforms:
Rise of Organised Communalism (1910s–1920s)
- 1912–1924 – Ideological Shift in Muslim League:
Initially moderate and pro-British, the League gradually adopted a more communal and separatist outlook, especially after the annulment of Bengal’s partition in 1911.
- 1912–1924 – Ideological Shift in Muslim League:
- 1915 – First Session of the Hindu Mahasabha:
- Signified the formal political mobilisation of Hindus on communal lines, intensifying the Hindu–Muslim political divide.
- 1916 – Congress-League Pact (Lucknow Pact):
- The Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in order to achieve Hindu–Muslim unity.
- While hailed as a joint nationalist front, it gave political legitimacy to the League’s communal demands.
- 1916 – Congress-League Pact (Lucknow Pact):
- 1920–1922 – Khilafat & Non-Cooperation Movements:
- Muslims participated in large numbers under Gandhi’s leadership.
- However, communal undertones persisted in the League’s political stance, and unity was short-lived.
- 1920–1922 – Khilafat & Non-Cooperation Movements:
- 1920s – Escalation of Communal Riots:
- Hindu–Muslim tensions increased with:
- 1920s – Escalation of Communal Riots:
- Arya Samaj’s Shuddhi Movement (religious reconversion)
- Muslim Tabligh & Tanzim Movements (religious consolidation)
- This period saw deep mistrust between the two communities.
From Political Negotiations to Communal Polarisation (Late 1920s–1930s)
- 1928 – Nehru Report & Jinnah’s Fourteen Points:
- The Nehru Report proposed a secular, federal constitution without separate electorates.
- Jinnah’s rejection through his Fourteen Points marked the League’s shift towards assertive communalism, demanding constitutional safeguards for Muslims.
- 1928 – Nehru Report & Jinnah’s Fourteen Points:
- 1930–1934 – Limited Muslim Participation in Civil Disobedience:
- Most League leaders stayed away from the Civil Disobedience Movement, revealing the growing divide within the nationalist struggle.
- 1930–1934 – Limited Muslim Participation in Civil Disobedience:
- 1932 – Communal Award:
- Announced by British PM Ramsay MacDonald, this award reinforced separate electorates not just for Muslims, but also for other minorities.
- It legitimised communal politics
- 1932 – Communal Award:
Consolidation of the Two-Nation Idea (1937–1940)
Post-1937 Elections:
- The Congress formed ministries in several provinces, but Muslim League performed poorly.
- The League, under Jinnah, adopted extreme communal propaganda, portraying Muslims as a separate nation in need of its own homeland.
- Thinkers like Allama Iqbal and Chaudhry Rahmat Ali strongly articulated the Pakistan concept.
March 23, 1940 – Lahore Resolution:
- The League formally demanded independent states for Muslims in north-western and eastern India.
- This resolution crystallised the Two-Nation Theory into a political programme.
World War II & the Final Push (1940–1947)
- During World War II, the British favoured the League to counterbalance Congress influence.
- The League used this opportunity to expand its base and press for Pakistan as a pre-condition for any constitutional settlement.
- By 1947, the Two-Nation Theory had become the dominant demand of Muslim politics, leading directly to the Partition of India.