28th may 2025 Current Affairs

India has initiated the process to develop Electric Hansa (E-Hansa), a next-generation two-seater electric trainer aircraft: Dr Jitendra Singh

Syllabus:Governance

In a high-level review chaired by Dr. Jitendra Singh, Union Minister of State (Independent Charge) for Science and Technology, India highlighted major advancements in green aviation, space exploration, and the broader science and technology landscape.

E-HANSA: India’s First Indigenous Electric Aircraft

India is developing the Electric Hansa (E-HANSA), a next-generation two-seater electric trainer aircraft.Developed by CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), Bengaluru, it is priced around ₹2 crore, nearly half the cost of comparable imported trainers.It is part of the HANSA-3 NG program, contributing to India’s green aviation and clean energy goals.

Technology Commercialization and Public-Private Partnerships

The National Research Development Corporation (NRDC) will adopt successful models from BIRAC and IN-SPACe to promote technology transfer.
Focus areas include hub-and-spoke PPP models, AI-powered tech and IP exchange platforms, and regional National Technology Transfer Offices (NTTOs).
Efforts are aimed at standardizing tech transfer protocols and improving ease of doing business.A global perspective rooted in the philosophy of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam was emphasized.

ISRO Recognized for Key Achievements

ISRO was praised for the SPADEX mission, which demonstrated docking and undocking technology essential for the upcoming Gaganyaan human spaceflight.
It also played a major role in Operation Sindoor and is collaborating with 40 central ministries and 28 state governments.As part of the Axiom Space Mission, Group Captain Subhash Shukla will carry out seven microgravity experiments aboard the International Space Station.

Whole-of-Science, Whole-of-Government Vision

Aligned with Prime Minister Modi’s Viksit Bharat vision, Dr. Singh called for integrated planning through region-wise Chintan Shivirs.These strategic sessions will include departments such as DST, DBT, CSIR, ISRO, Earth Sciences, and Atomic Energy to ensure holistic coordination.

Global Collaboration and Science Talent Exchange

A proposal was made for a Global Science Talent Bridge to attract leading international researchers.CSIR labs, recently opened to students, received an overwhelming response and will reopen soon after temporary security-related suspension.New science collaboration centers are being explored with countries like Switzerland and Italy, building on the models of the Indo-French and Indo-German Science Centres.

Key Attendees

The meeting was attended by top scientific leaders including Prof. Ajay Kumar Sood (Principal Scientific Advisor), Dr. N. Kalaiselvi (DG and Secretary, CSIR), Dr. V. Narayanan (Chairman, ISRO), and the Secretaries of DST, DBT, Earth Sciences, Atomic Energy, IMD, and NRDC.This strategic review represents a pivotal moment in the transformation of India’s science and innovation ecosystem.

With reference to the E-HANSA aircraft, consider the following statements:

It is India’s first indigenously developed electric trainer aircraft, designed to support the transition to carbon-neutral aviation under the National Green Aviation Mission.
The aircraft was developed by CSIR–NAL and includes onboard AI modules for autonomous flight control and energy optimization.
The E-HANSA project complements the UDAN scheme by enabling cost-effective pilot training in underserved regions.
The aircraft uses lithium-sulphur battery technology, which offers higher energy density and lower weight compared to conventional lithium-ion batteries.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1, 2 and 3 only
B. 1 and 3 only
C. 2, 3 and 4 only
D. 1, 3 and 4 only

Correct Answer: B. 1 and 3 only

Explanation:

Statement 1 is correct:E-HANSA is indeed India’s first indigenously developed electric trainer aircraft, intended to promote sustainable aviation. Though there is no official “National Green Aviation Mission,” its development aligns with broader green and clean energy initiatives.
Statement 2 is incorrect:There is no public documentation confirming the presence of AI-based autonomous flight systems in E-HANSA. It is primarily a manually piloted trainer aircraft.
Statement 3 is correct: E-HANSA supports affordable pilot training and could help extend aviation access in line with the UDAN scheme, which targets regional connectivity.
Statement 4 is incorrect: E-HANSA currently uses lithium-ion batteries, not lithium-sulphur. Lithium-sulphur technology is still in experimental stages and not yet deployed in this aircraft.

DRDO inaugurates Quantum Technology Research Centre to further bolster indigenous quantum capabilities for strategic & defence applications

Syllabus:Defence

On May 27, 2025, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) inaugurated the Quantum Technology Research Centre (QTRC) at Metcalfe House, Delhi.
The state-of-the-art facility was inaugurated by Samir V. Kamat, Secretary, Department of Defence R&D and Chairman, DRDO.
The QTRC aims to strengthen India’s indigenous quantum research capabilities, particularly in support of strategic and defence applications.
Equipped with cutting-edge experimental infrastructure, QTRC is poised to advance research across critical quantum technology domains.
Its key capabilities include:
Characterisation of Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers (VCSELs) and Distributed Feedback (DFB) Lasers,
Test-beds for evaluating single-photon sources,
Characterisation of Micro-Fabricated Alkali Vapor Cells,
Experimental platforms for developing and validating Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) techniques, a critical enabler of ultra-secure communication in the post-quantum era.
These initiatives are spearheaded by the Scientific Analysis Group (SAG), DRDO.
In parallel, the Solid State Physics Laboratory (SSPL) is leading the development of foundational quantum technologies at QTRC. These include:
An ultra-small atomic clock based on Coherent Population Trapping (CPT) for highly precise timekeeping in GNSS-denied environments,
An atomic magnetometer utilizing optically pumped magnetometry for ultra-sensitive magnetic field detection,
Advanced solid-state quantum devices and materials, critical for the development of scalable quantum systems.
DRDO continues to play a pivotal role in India’s quantum technology ecosystem, leading national efforts in quantum sensing, secure communications, and post-quantum cryptography.
As a core stakeholder in the National Quantum Mission, DRDO remains committed to fostering sovereign quantum capabilities through indigenous innovation.
The inauguration ceremony was attended by Suma Varughese, Director General (Micro Electronic Devices, Computational Systems & Cyber Systems), whose vision was instrumental in conceptualising this next-generation research facility.
Also present were Manu Korulla, DG (Resources & Management), along with Directors of SSPL and SAG, senior scientists, and distinguished guests.

With reference to the Quantum Technology Research Centre (QTRC) recently inaugurated by DRDO, consider the following statements:

The primary aim of QTRC is to establish a commercial ecosystem for quantum computing in collaboration with private sector partners under the National Quantum Mission.
The centre hosts facilities for characterisation of laser systems such as Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers (VCSELs) and Distributed Feedback (DFB) Lasers, which are essential for quantum optics research.
QTRC includes experimental setups for Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) development and micro-fabricated Alkali Vapor Cell characterisation, with support from Scientific Analysis Group (SAG), DRDO.
The foundational quantum technologies at QTRC, including atomic clocks and magnetometers, are developed under the leadership of the Solid State Physics Laboratory (SSPL), DRDO.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A) 1 and 2 only
B) 2 and 3 only
C) 2, 3 and 4 only
D) 1, 3 and 4 only

Answer: C) 2, 3 and 4 only

Explanation:

Statement 1 is incorrect: While DRDO’s QTRC plays a strategic role in India’s quantum ecosystem, its primary focus is not commercialisation or private sector collaboration, but indigenous R&D for strategic and defence applications. The National Quantum Mission supports such initiatives, but QTRC is primarily a government-led facility with security-focused goals.
Statement 2 is correct: QTRC has facilities for characterising VCSELs and DFB lasers, essential tools in quantum optics and communication systems.
Statement 3 is correct: QTRC indeed includes experimental platforms for QKD, alkali vapor cell characterisation, and single-photon source test-beds, under the guidance of SAG (Scientific Analysis Group).
Statement 4 is correct: The development of atomic clocks, atomic magnetometers, and solid-state quantum devices at QTRC is spearheaded by SSPL (Solid State Physics Laboratory), DRDO.

Launch of ‘Know Your DIGIPIN’ and ‘Know Your PIN Code’ Web Portals: A Landmark in India's Geospatial and Addressing Infrastructure

Syllabus:Geography

In a significant stride towards modernising India’s addressing and geospatial infrastructure, the Department of Posts, Ministry of Communications, has launched two digital platforms — ‘Know Your DIGIPIN’ and ‘Know Your PIN Code’.
These initiatives align with the National Geospatial Policy 2022, aimed at enhancing digital governance and service delivery through advanced geospatial systems
. The DIGIPIN (Digital Postal Index Number) represents a transformative, geo-coded, grid-based digital addressing system developed through collaboration between the Department of Posts, IIT Hyderabad, and the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), ISRO.
DIGIPIN is foundational to the Department’s Address-as-a-Service (AaaS) initiative, which envisions the seamless use of address data across governance, private sector, and citizen-facing applications.
The ‘Know Your DIGIPIN’ platform allows users to obtain their DIGIPIN using precise latitude-longitude geolocation data and convert geocoordinates into DIGIPINs and vice versa.
This system aims to revolutionise last-mile delivery, disaster response, location intelligence, and public service targeting, particularly in rural and underserved areas.
Officially adopted by the Thematic Working Group on Address under the National Geospatial Policy, DIGIPIN is now accessible for integration by all Ministries, State Governments, institutions, and individuals.
Furthermore, the initiative promotes open innovation: a complete repository of DIGIPIN’s source code and documentation is now publicly available on GitHub, enabling developers and institutions to contribute to its evolution. Introduced in 1972, India’s six-digit PIN Code has long been the backbone of the national postal system.
In recognition of the need to modernise this system, the Department conducted a nationwide geofencing exercise to geo-reference PIN Code boundaries across all postal jurisdictions.
The newly launched ‘Know Your PIN Code’ application allows users to accurately determine their official PIN Code using GNSS-based geolocation and provide crowdsourced feedback on PIN Code accuracy to continuously enhance the dataset.
The geo-fenced PIN Code boundary dataset has also been made publicly accessible via the Open Government Data (OGD) Platform as a geo-json layer titled “All India PIN Code Boundary”.
Speaking at the launch, Ms. Vandita Kaul, Secretary, Department of Posts, highlighted the strategic importance of the new systems: “DIGIPIN will redefine how we perceive and utilise addresses, ensuring every citizen is digitally locatable and serviceable — a crucial step towards precision governance and inclusive infrastructure.”
By enabling geospatially precise, digitally interoperable addressing, these platforms reinforce the Department of Posts’ evolving role as a pillar of Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) — going beyond traditional postal functions to support the broader goals of Digital India and data-driven public administration.
Both platforms are designed with citizen participation in mind, offering interfaces to submit real-time feedback on data accuracy and system usability.
This participatory mechanism ensures a dynamic, adaptive, and locally contextualised digital addressing framework that evolves with on-ground realities. Together, ‘Know Your DIGIPIN’ and ‘Know Your PIN Code’ represent a paradigm shift in India’s spatial governance architecture, fostering more accurate, efficient, and inclusive service delivery across the nation.

With reference to the Digital Postal Index Number (DIGIPIN), consider the following statements:

It is a proprietary digital addressing system developed by the Department of Posts in partnership with private GIS vendors under the Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model.
DIGIPIN operates on a geo-coded, grid-based architecture and integrates seamlessly with GIS for last-mile service delivery.
The DIGIPIN source code and technical documentation are made publicly available under open-source licensing.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3

Answer: B. 2 and 3 only
Explanation:

Statement 1 is incorrect: DIGIPIN is not developed under PPP with private vendors but through collaboration between the Department of Posts, IIT Hyderabad, and NRSC (ISRO).
Statement 2 is correct: It uses a geo-coded, grid-based digital address format.
Statement 3 is correct: It is open-source and available on GitHub.

Supreme Court Needs to Change from Being a Chief Justice-Centric Court

Syllabus: GS2/ Polity and Governance

Former Supreme Court Judge Justice A.S. Oka emphasized the need for a more democratic and institutionalized approach in the Supreme Court’s functioning, moving away from a system heavily centered around the Chief Justice of India (CJI). Currently, the CJI exercises considerable control over key aspects of the Court’s functioning, a practice that requires reform.

The Current System and Its Challenges

The CJI is the master of the roster, as reaffirmed in Shanti Bhushan vs. Supreme Court of India (2018).
This means the CJI alone decides which bench hears which case, which judges are assigned to these benches, and when cases are listed for hearing.
For Constitution Bench cases, which must include at least five judges, the CJI not only decides when such benches are constituted but often presides over them as well.
In terms of court administration, the CJI holds a unique and dominant position, as observed in State of Rajasthan v. Prakash Chand (1998).
While the CJI is ‘first among equals’ in judicial matters, he exercises control over the court registry, work allocation, and administrative decisions, often without formal consultation with other judges.
Justice Oka also highlighted the need to empower the district judiciary, the backbone of India’s justice delivery system, which remains under-resourced and weak compared to the apex court.

Challenges Emerging from this Structure

Lack of Transparency: Litigants and even fellow judges often remain unaware of how cases are allocated or why delays occur.
Delay in Justice: The discretionary power of the CJI in constituting benches has led to significant delays, especially in matters of constitutional or national importance.
Weakened Collegiality: The current centralized system undermines judicial equality and collective responsibility among Supreme Court judges.
Steps Towards Greater Transparency:In 2018, the Supreme Court introduced a public roster system to improve transparency in the allocation of sensitive cases. In Subhash Chandra Agarwal v. Supreme Court (2019), a Constitution Bench ruled that the office of the CJI falls under the Right to Information (RTI) Act, a landmark judgment for judicial transparency. Additionally, the Court has made public details of the judicial appointment process to enhance understanding of judicial selections.

Reforms Needed for a More Robust Judiciary

Committee-Based Decision-Making: Internal committees should be established to decide Bench composition, case listing, and administrative matters, thereby decentralizing power and encouraging institutional participation.
Transparent Listing Mechanism: Use of technology and algorithm-based systems with minimal human discretion should automate case listing to ensure fairness and transparency.
Collegiality in Constitution Bench Assignments: A panel of senior judges, rather than the sole discretion of the CJI, should determine the composition and timing of Constitution Benches.

Conclusion:

As the guardian of constitutional rights, the Supreme Court must ensure it remains independent, institutionally strong, inclusive, and transparent.
Moving away from a CJI-centric model toward a more committee-based and democratic structure will enhance judicial credibility, promote shared responsibility among judges, and uphold the principle of justice for all.

With reference to the administration and judicial functioning of the Supreme Court of India, consider the following statements:

The Chief Justice of India (CJI) unilaterally controls the allocation of cases and formation of benches without formal consultation with other judges, including constitution benches.
The State of Rajasthan v. Prakash Chand (1998) judgment explicitly described the CJI as ‘first among equals’ in judicial matters but granted the CJI exclusive control over court administration.
The Shanti Bhushan vs. Supreme Court (2018) case reaffirmed the CJI’s absolute discretion over case listing and bench constitution, but also mandated mandatory consultation with a committee of senior judges for constitution benches.
The Supreme Court’s public roster system introduced in 2018 and the RTI applicability ruling in Subhash Chandra Agarwal v. Supreme Court (2019) are steps aimed at increasing transparency and decentralizing judicial administration.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?

A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 4 only
C. 1, 2 and 4 only
D. 1, 3 and 4 only

Answer: C. 1, 2 and 4 only

Explanation:

Statement 1: The CJI currently has dominant control over case allocation and bench formation, often without formal consultation, especially for Constitution Benches.
Statement 2: State of Rajasthan v. Prakash Chand recognized the CJI as ‘first among equals’ in judicial matters but gave the CJI a unique dominant administrative role.
Statement 3: While Shanti Bhushan reaffirmed CJI’s discretion over the roster, it did not mandate mandatory consultation with a committee for Constitution Benches; such reforms remain proposals for democratization.
Statement 4: The public roster system and RTI ruling are landmark steps for transparency, but complete decentralization is still a reform objective.

Microfinance Loan Delinquencies Jump 163% in FY2025

Syllabus:Economy

India’s microfinance sector has experienced a significant increase in loan delinquencies, surging by 163% to reach Rs 43,075 crore in FY2025.

What is Microfinance?

Microfinance provides financial services—including microloans, savings, insurance, and remittances—to low-income individuals or groups typically excluded from traditional banking.
These services are mainly offered by NBFC-MFIs, Small Finance Banks (SFBs), and banks.
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) defines a microfinance loan as a collateral-free loan extended to households with an annual income up to ₹3,00,000.

Key Trends in the Microfinance Sector:

The gross loan portfolio declined by 13.9% year-on-year, from ₹4.42 lakh crore in March 2024 to ₹3.81 lakh crore in March 2025.
There is a noticeable shift from low-ticket to high-ticket loans: loans exceeding ₹1 lakh grew by 38.5% year-on-year, while loans under ₹30,000 dropped by 35.9%.
The number of active microfinance loans decreased from 16.1 crore to 14 crore during FY2025.
Borrowers with five or more lenders reduced from 9.7% to 4.9%.

Causes of Rising Delinquencies:

Overleveraging: Borrowers, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas, often take loans from multiple institutions, resulting in unsustainable debt levels.
Weak Credit Appraisal: Many MFIs, especially smaller NBFC-MFIs and pressured banks, have relaxed credit checks, lending without thorough background assessments.
Income Instability: Post-pandemic economic disruptions, inflation, rural distress, and unstable employment have diminished borrowers’ repayment capacity.
Collection Inefficiencies: Reduced field engagement post-COVID, increased digital reliance, and weak recovery mechanisms in some regions have hindered loan collection.
Loan Utilization Issues: A significant portion of microfinance loans is diverted from income-generating activities toward consumption or social needs such as weddings, festivals, or health emergencies.

Government Initiatives:

Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY): Launched in 2015, PMMY enables small businesses to access collateral-free microcredit up to Rs 10 lakhs through MFIs and other financial institutions, with refinancing support from MUDRA Ltd.
Udyam Assist Platform (UAP): This platform assists informal micro-entrepreneurs, many of whom are MFI clients, in registering as MSMEs to access priority sector lending, subsidies, and credit guarantees under various schemes.
Credit Information Sharing: RBI mandates all microfinance lenders to report borrower data to credit bureaus such as CRIF High Mark and CIBIL, facilitating better credit assessments.
RBI’s Revised Regulatory Framework for Microfinance Loans (2022): This uniform framework regulates all lenders—banks, NBFCs, NBFC-MFIs, and SFBs—aimed at borrower protection and promoting responsible lending.

The Way Forward:

Strengthening credit assessment tools is crucial to prevent borrower over-indebtedness.
Utilizing credit bureau data effectively helps identify early signs of financial stress.
Enhanced regulatory oversight by RBI and state authorities is needed to ensure fair collection practices and responsible lending norms.
Promoting financial literacy and inclusion will empower borrowers to understand their credit obligations and rights, fostering a healthier microfinance ecosystem.

Consider the following statements about India’s microfinance sector:

The Reserve Bank of India defines a microfinance loan as a collateral-free loan given to a household with an annual income up to ₹3,00,000.
The sector witnessed a rise in microfinance loan delinquencies by over 150% in FY2025 despite the gross loan portfolio increasing during the same period.
The shift in loan ticket size in FY2025 indicated a significant growth in loans below ₹30,000 and a decline in loans above ₹1 lakh.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) None of the above

Correct answer: (a) 1 only

Explanation:

Statement 1 is correct. RBI defines microfinance loans as collateral-free loans to households earning up to ₹3,00,000 annually.
Statement 2 is incorrect. Although loan delinquencies surged by 163%, the gross loan portfolio declined by about 13.9% in FY2025, not increased.
Statement 3 is incorrect. The trend was a shift from low-ticket loans (< ₹30,000 declined by ~35.9%) to high-ticket loans (> ₹1 lakh grew by ~38.5%).

NITI Aayog Releases Report on “Designing a Policy for MediumEnterprises”

Syllabus:Polity

The MSME sector stands as a vital pillar of India’s economy, contributing approximately 29% to GDP, 40% to exports, and providing employment to over 60% of the workforce.
However, the sector is predominantly composed of micro enterprises, which constitute 97% of registered MSMEs.
Small enterprises represent 2.7%, while medium enterprises make up a mere 0.3%.
Despite their small numbers, medium enterprises are strategically significant, accounting for nearly 40% of MSME exports.

Understanding the Tilt Towards Micro Enterprises

This disproportion is largely due to an overreliance on informal, subsistence-level micro firms and a significant underutilization of the potential of medium enterprises, which have greater capacity to scale, innovate, and integrate into global supply chains.

Challenges Facing Medium Enterprises

Limited Access to Finance: Only 37% of medium enterprises obtain formal loans. Challenges include collateral-heavy lending procedures, inadequate risk assessments, and a lack of dedicated credit facilities.
Technology Deficit: About 82% of medium enterprises have not adopted advanced technologies such as AI, IoT, or digital automation, limiting their productivity and competitiveness on a global scale.
Skill Gaps: Approximately 88% do not benefit from government skill development programs, which are often outdated or inaccessible.
Low Awareness of Government Schemes: Over 90% of medium enterprises are unaware of critical schemes and platforms like RAMP, ZED, or GeM, and even when aware, bureaucratic complexities hinder their utilization.
Heavy Compliance Burden: Multiple inspections from labor, health, and safety authorities increase operational costs and reduce ease of doing business.

Why Medium Enterprises Matter

Forex Earnings: Medium enterprises generate ₹39.95 crore in foreign exchange per unit, significantly higher than small (₹8.3 crore) and micro (₹1.39 crore) units.
Innovation Drivers: They contribute 81% of total MSME R&D expenditure, investing heavily in automation, AI, and process improvements.
Employment Providers: With an average of 89 employees per unit, medium enterprises create substantially more jobs compared to small (19.1) and micro (5.7) units.
Profitability and Scale: Benefiting from economies of scale, superior infrastructure, and investment capacity, medium enterprises achieve higher returns on capital and maintain sustained competitiveness.

Policy Recommendations

Tailored Financial Instruments: Introduce working capital schemes linked to enterprise turnover with expedited approval processes. Launch a ₹5 crore Medium Enterprise credit card at market rates requiring minimal collateral.
Technology Upgradation via Competence Centres: Transform existing technology centres into India ME 4.0 hubs, providing access to Industry 4.0 tools in sectors such as ESDM, pharmaceuticals, and sports goods.
Focused R&D Ecosystem: Implement a three-tier funding model involving expert committees, proposal solicitation, and monitoring. Utilize the Self-Reliant India Fund (SRI) to finance sector-specific innovation initiatives.
Cluster-Based Testing and Certification: Expand the Micro and Small Enterprises – Cluster Development Programme (MSE-CDP) to medium enterprises and establish regional testing labs to ensure quality compliance, particularly for exports.
Customized Skill Development: Develop export-oriented, sector-specific training curricula and integrate medium enterprise modules into existing Entrepreneurship Skill Development Programmes (ESDP) in collaboration with the Ministry of Skill Development.
Centralized Digital Support Portal: Create a dedicated sub-portal for medium enterprises under the Udyam portal featuring scheme discovery, compliance tracking, and market intelligence services.
This comprehensive approach aims to unlock the untapped potential of medium enterprises, enabling them to scale, innovate, and contribute more robustly to India’s economic growth and global trade.

Consider the following statements regarding Medium Enterprises (MEs) in India’s MSME sector:

Medium enterprises constitute less than 1% of registered MSMEs but contribute nearly 40% of MSME exports.
Around 82% of medium enterprises have adopted advanced technologies such as AI and IoT, boosting their global competitiveness.
Medium enterprises generate significantly higher foreign exchange per unit compared to micro and small enterprises.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) 1 and 3 only

Explanation:

Statement 1 is correct: Medium enterprises form only about 0.3% of registered MSMEs but account for nearly 40% of MSME exports, showing their strategic export importance.
Statement 2 is incorrect: Around 82% of medium enterprises do not use advanced technologies like AI and IoT, which hampers their productivity.
Statement 3 is correct: Medium enterprises generate significantly higher foreign exchange (₹39.95 crore per unit) compared to small (₹8.3 crore) and micro (₹1.39 crore) enterprises.

Coal Sector in India: A Strategic Engine for Sustainable Growth and Global Leadership

Syllabus: GS3/Energy

Importance and Current Status

Coal has been the cornerstone of India’s energy sector, powering industries, electricity generation, and fueling economic growth
India ranks as the world’s 5th largest coal reserve holder and 2nd largest consumer. Despite the rise of renewables, coal remains critical—currently constituting about 47% of India’s installed power capacity, down from 60% in 2014–15.
In FY25, both production and dispatch of coal crossed the 1 billion tonne mark, underscoring its continued significance for energy security and cost-effective power supply.
The sector supports over 5 lakh workers across more than 350 coal mines, contributing substantially to employment and regional economies.

Strategic Significance

Energy Security: Coal generates nearly 47% of India’s electricity, with projections estimating it will still provide about 55% of power by 2030.
Industrial Backbone: The steel industry, reliant on coking coal, is poised to ramp up domestic coking coal production to 140 million tonnes by 2029–30 under the Mission Coking Coal initiative.
Economic Impact: Coal mining contributes over ₹70,000 crore annually via royalties, GST, and District Mineral Foundation funds.
Transport Revenues: Indian Railways derive 49% of their freight revenue from coal transport (FY 2022–23).
CSR and Community Development: Coal Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) invest over ₹600 crore annually in social initiatives including schools, hospitals, and skill centers in mining regions.

Geographical and Geological Profile

Gondwana Coal: About 98% of Indian coal reserves belong to the Gondwana formation, spread across Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and others.
Major Coalfields: Key coal mining regions include the Damodar Valley (Jharia, Bokaro, Dhanbad), Son Valley (Singrauli), Mahanadi Valley (Korba, Talcher), Godavari and Wardha Valleys (Telangana, Maharashtra).
Coal Types: India’s coal ranges from anthracite (scarce), bituminous (most common, mainly for power), sub-bituminous (higher heating value), to lignite (low grade, used near mines).

Challenges Facing the Sector

Supply Constraints: Domestic production stagnation, transport bottlenecks, and reduced imports have occasionally led to coal shortages and power crises.
Environmental Concerns: Deforestation, air pollution, and carbon emissions pose sustainability challenges. Transition to cleaner coal technologies like gasification remains gradual.
Import Dependency: Despite large reserves, India still imports coal, making it vulnerable to global price volatility.
Infrastructure Bottlenecks: Overreliance on railways for coal transport causes congestion and delays.
Social Issues: Coal mining employs hundreds of thousands but struggles with worker safety, displacement, and inadequate rehabilitation.

Recent Reforms and Innovations

Commercial Coal Mining (2020): Opening coal mining to private players through auctions increased competition, production, and employment.
Coal Mines Special Provisions Act (CMSP Act 2015): Introduced transparent auctions after Supreme Court cancellations of allocations, boosting private participation.
SHAKTI Policy (2025 revision): Enhances flexibility and accessibility in coal allocation to meet rising energy demand.
Single Window E-Auction: Streamlines coal sales, ensuring fair pricing and reducing market distortions.
Revival of Abandoned Mines: Incentivizes private sector reopening of closed mines with a focus on environmental sustainability.
Underground Mining Push: Offers incentives to encourage private investment and advanced mining technologies underground.
Coal Gasification Drive: Targets gasifying 100 million tonnes of coal by 2030 to reduce carbon footprint, backed by fiscal support.
Digital Transformation: Launch of India’s first coal trading exchange, alongside the DigiCoal initiative integrating AI, 5G, drones, and digital twins for safer, efficient mining operations.
Future Vision: Viksit Bharat 2047:India aims to increase per capita electricity consumption from 1.10 MWh to global standards by 2047, supporting the vision of becoming a $35 trillion economy.
Coal will continue to play a pivotal role alongside growing renewable energy capacity, ensuring reliable, affordable, and sustainable energy access to power India’s development journey.

Consider the following statements regarding Medium Enterprises (MEs) in India’s MSME sector:

Medium enterprises constitute less than 1% of registered MSMEs but contribute nearly 40% of MSME exports.
Around 82% of medium enterprises have adopted advanced technologies such as AI and IoT, boosting their global competitiveness.
Medium enterprises generate significantly higher foreign exchange per unit compared to micro and small enterprises.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) 1 and 3 only

Explanation:

Statement 1 – Correct:Medium enterprises make up just 3% of registered MSMEs but contribute nearly 40% of MSME exports, highlighting their strategic importance in international trade.
Statement 2 – Incorrect:Contrary to the claim, around 82% of medium enterprises have not adopted advanced technologies such as AI, IoT, or digital automation. This lack of tech integration hampers their productivity and global competitiveness.
Statement 3 – Correct:Medium enterprises generate significantly higher foreign exchange per unit (₹95 crore) compared to small (₹8.3 crore) and micro (₹1.39 crore) units.

Mendel’s Work with Laws of Inheritance

Syllabus: GS3/Science and Technology

Context:

A recent international research collaboration has significantly advanced pea genome mapping, offering critical insights for crop improvement and reinforcing the foundations of classical genetics laid by Gregor Mendel.

About the Study:

Published in Nature, the study is a joint effort by the John Innes Centre (JIC) and the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), along with institutions from the UK, USA, France, and China. It connects over 70 agronomic traits with corresponding genomic loci, providing a rich resource for genome-assisted breeding.

Key Contributions:

The team identified numerous genetic markers for each trait, enabling precision breeding to enhance yield, disease resistance, and agronomic performance.
The work revisits and validates several of Mendel’s original seven traits, revealing new genetic diversity and deepening our understanding of inheritance.

Significance:

The findings come amid a global push for sustainable agriculture and plant-based protein sources.
Peas, like other legumes, contribute to environmental sustainability by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers.
The study facilitates predictive breeding, integrating AI-driven models to identify optimal gene combinations, thereby modernizing traditional breeding techniques.

Mendel’s Historic Contribution:

Gregor Mendel, regarded as the father of genetics, conducted pioneering work on Pisum sativum (pea plant) over 150 years ago. He focused on seven distinct traits, including seed shape and flower color, due to their clear expression and inheritance patterns.

Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance:

Law of Segregation: Each parent contributes one allele for a trait; alleles segregate during gamete formation.
Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits assort independently if located on different chromosomes.
Law of Dominance: In heterozygous conditions, the dominant allele masks the expression of the recessive allele.

Conclusion:

Mendel’s discoveries, initially unrecognized, were rediscovered in 1900 and have since become the cornerstone of classical genetics. This genomic study builds on Mendel’s legacy, demonstrating how modern genetic tools can enhance agricultural sustainability and food security in the 21st century.

Consider the following statements regarding recent research in pea genomics:

The study was a collaboration exclusively between UK and Chinese institutions.
The research connected over 70 agronomic traits with specific genomic loci.
The study holds significance for sustainable agriculture due to the nitrogen-fixing ability of peas.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer:(b) 2 and 3 only
Explanation:

Statement 1 is incorrect – The research involved institutions from China, UK, USA, and France, not just China and the UK.
Statements 2 and 3 are correct – The research mapped over 70 traits and promotes sustainability by advancing nitrogen-fixing crop development.

Saraswati Pushkaralu

Syllabus: GS1/ Culture

The 11th day of the ongoing Saraswati Pushkaralu witnessed a massive influx of pilgrims at Kaleshwaram, marking a significant spiritual gathering.

About Saraswati Pushkaralu:

Saraswati Pushkaralu, also known as Saraswati Pushkaram, is a sacred Hindu river festival that is celebrated once every 12 years. The timing of the festival is astronomically determined—it coincides with the entry of the planet Jupiter (Brihaspati) into the Gemini zodiac sign (Mithuna Rasi).
The festival spans 12 days, beginning precisely from the moment Jupiter transitions into Mithuna Rasi. It is dedicated to the revered and mystical River Saraswati, often referred to as Antarvahini—the invisible river believed to flow beneath the Triveni Sangam.

Significance of Kaleshwaram:

Kaleshwaram becomes a focal pilgrimage destination during this period. It is believed to be the meeting point (Triveni Sangam) of three rivers:
Godavari
Pranahita
Saraswati (the subterranean and spiritual river)
Devotees flock to Kaleshwaram during Saraswati Pushkaralu to offer prayers, perform rituals, and take holy dips, seeking spiritual purification and divine blessings.

Consider the following statements with respect to the Saraswati Pushkaralu festival:

The festival is celebrated every 12 years, based on the movement of Saturn into the Gemini constellation.
It is associated with the Triveni Sangam where the rivers Godavari, Krishna, and the invisible Saraswati are believed to meet.
The river Saraswati, though not visible, holds sanctity in Hindu tradition and is often invoked in rituals.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 3 only
C. 1 and 2 only
D. 2 and 3 only

Answer:B
Explanation:

Statement 1 is incorrect: It is Jupiter (Brihaspati) entering Gemini (Mithuna), not Saturn.
Statement 2 is incorrect: The Triveni Sangam at Kaleshwaram involves Godavari, Pranahita, and Saraswati, not Krishna.
Statement 3 is correct: Saraswati is considered Antarvahini (invisible but sacred), often invoked in religious rites.