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DEFENCY TECHNOLOGY

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Defence Technology

      Defence technology encompasses the application of scientific understanding, engineering methodologies, and sophisticated systems to develop tools, equipment, and strategies that enhance a nation’s capacity to protect itself and its interests from potential threats or assaults. This domain includes a wide range of areas, such as missile systems, communication technologies, military equipment, cyber defence, and other cutting-edge solutions vital for national security and defence.

Organizational Structure of Indian Defence:

     The Indian defence system is a well-structured and hierarchical organization designed to ensure national security, operational efficiency, and strategic preparedness. At its core, the defence framework operates under civilian control while maintaining a robust military command structure. Below is a detailed breakdown of the organizational structure of Indian defence, including key roles, responsibilities, and administrative divisions.

 

1. Supreme Commander: The President of India

      The President of India serves as the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces, a constitutional role that symbolizes the unity and authority of the nation’s defence forces. While the President does not engage in day-to-day military operations, all executive decisions related to defence are taken in their name.

2. Ministry of Defence (MoD)

    The Ministry of Defence (MoD) is the central administrative body responsible for the management and governance of India’s defence forces. Headed by the Raksha Mantri (Defence Minister), the MoD formulates defence policies, allocates budgets, oversees defence procurements, and ensures coordination among the Army, Navy, and Air Force.

The MoD is divided into five key departments, each specializing in different aspects of defence administration:

 

A. Department of Defence (DoD)

The DoD is the primary department under the MoD and handles:

    • Defence Budget & Expenditure:Allocation and monitoring of funds for the armed forces.
    • Defence Policy & Planning:Formulating policies related to national security and military strategy.
    • Parliamentary Affairs:Liaising with Parliament on defence-related matters.
    • International Defence Cooperation:Managing military diplomacy, joint exercises, and defence agreements with foreign nations.
    • Civilian Defence Personnel:Administration of civilian employees working in defence establishments.

 

B. Department of Military Affairs (DMA)

Established in 2019, the DMA was created to enhance jointness among the three services (Army, Navy, Air Force) and improve resource optimization. Headed by the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS), the DMA focuses on:

    • Joint Military Operations:Ensuring seamless coordination between the Army, Navy, and Air Force.
    • Defence Procurement & Modernization:Streamlining acquisitions to avoid redundancy.
    • Military Diplomacy:Enhancing defence partnerships with allied nations.
    • Human Resource Management:Policies related to recruitment, training, and career progression of defence personnel.

 

C. Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) – A Key Leadership Role

The CDS is a four-star General/Admiral/Air Chief Marshal and serves as:

    • Principal Military Advisorto the Government of India.
    • Permanent Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (COSC).
    • Head of the Department of Military Affairs (DMA).
    • Advisor to the Nuclear Command Authority (NCA).
      The CDS plays a crucial role in integrating tri-service operations, promoting theatre commands, and ensuring jointness in defence planning.

 

D. Department of Defence Production (DDP)

The DDP is responsible for indigenous defence manufacturing and reducing dependency on foreign arms imports. Its functions include:

    • Defence Public Sector Undertakings (DPSUs):Overseeing defence production units like HAL, BEL, BEML, etc.
    • Make in India in Defence:Encouraging private sector participation in defence manufacturing.
    • Indigenization of Defence Equipment:Promoting self-reliance in critical defence technologies.
    • Defence Exports:Facilitating the export of Indian-made defence equipment.

 

E. Department of Defence Research and Development (DDR&D)

The DDR&D, headed by the Scientific Advisor to the Defence Minister, drives innovation in defence technology. Key functions include:

    • Research & Development (R&D):Developing advanced weapon systems, radars, missiles, and AI-based defence solutions.
    • Defence Technology Partnerships:Collaborating with DRDO, ISRO, and private tech firms.
    • Testing & Evaluation:Ensuring defence equipment meets operational standards.

 

F. Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare (DESW)

The DESW is dedicated to the welfare of retired military personnel and their families. Its responsibilities include:

    • Pension & Benefits:Managing pension schemes for veterans.
    • Resettlement Programs:Providing post-retirement employment opportunities.
    • Healthcare & Housing:Ensuring medical and housing facilities for ex-servicemen.
    • Welfare Schemes:Implementing initiatives like ECHS (Ex-Servicemen Contributory Health Scheme).

3. The Three Armed Forces & Their Command Structure

A. Indian Army

    • Headquarters:Integrated Defence Headquarters (IDHQ), New Delhi.
    • Chief of the Army Staff (COAS):A four-star General leading the Army.
    • Commands:Divided into 7 operational commands (e.g., Northern Command, Southern Command).

 

B. Indian Navy

    • Headquarters:Integrated Defence Headquarters (IDHQ), New Delhi.
    • Chief of the Naval Staff (CNS):A four-star Admiral leading the Navy.
    • Commands:Divided into 3 operational commands (Western, Eastern, Southern).

 

C. Indian Air Force (IAF)

    • Headquarters:Integrated Defence Headquarters (IDHQ), New Delhi.
    • Chief of the Air Staff (CAS):A four-star Air Chief Marshal leading the IAF.
    • Commands:Divided into 5 operational commands (e.g., Western Air Command, Eastern Air Command).

4. Future Reforms: Theatre Commands

To enhance joint warfare capabilities, India is moving towards Integrated Theatre Commands (ITCs), where Army, Navy, and Air Force units will operate under a unified command. The proposed commands include:

    • Air Defence Command
    • Maritime Theatre Command
    • Integrated Western & Eastern Theatre Commands

This restructuring aims to reduce duplication, improve coordination, and enhance combat efficiency.

 

       The Indian defence structure is a multi-layered, well-coordinated system that ensures national security through civilian oversight, military expertise, and technological advancement. With ongoing reforms like the CDS role and Theatre Commands, India is strengthening its defence preparedness for future challenges

DEFENCE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION (DRDO)

       The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is the R&D wing of the Ministry of Defence, Government of India, dedicated to equipping the nation with cutting-edge defence technologies and achieving self-reliance in critical military systems. DRDO plays a crucial role in strengthening the armed forces by developing state-of-the-art weapon systems and equipment as per the requirements of the three Services. Its notable achievements include the successful indigenous development and production of strategic systems like the Agni and Prithvi missile series, the light combat aircraft Tejas, the multi-barrel rocket launcher Pinaka, the air defence system Akash, as well as an extensive range of radars and electronic warfare systems. These advancements have significantly enhanced India’s military capabilities, providing crucial deterrence and strategic leverage. Guided by the motto “Balasya Mulam Vigyanam”—which means “the source of strength is science”—DRDO remains committed to making India strong and self-reliant in defence science and technology.

 

       Established in 1958, DRDO was formed by merging the Technical Development Establishments (TDEs) of the Indian Army, the Directorate of Technical Development & Production (DTDP), and the Defence Science Organisation (DSO). Initially, it was a small entity with just 10 laboratories, but over the years, it has expanded significantly in scope, expertise, and infrastructure. Today, DRDO operates a vast network of 41 laboratories and five DRDO Young Scientist Laboratories (DYSLs), focusing on diverse fields such as aeronautics, armaments, combat vehicles, missiles, engineering systems, electronics, naval systems, special materials, life sciences, and advanced computing. With several major projects underway—including those related to missiles, light combat aircraft, radars, and electronic warfare systems—DRDO continues to achieve significant milestones, reinforcing India’s defence capabilities and technological self-sufficiency.

 

Technology Clusters of DRDO

     The technology clusters of DRDO refer to specific areas of focus and expertise within the organization. These clusters represent different technological domains where DRDO conducts research, development, and innovation to meet the defence requirements of India.

    The Missiles and Strategic Systems (MSS) Cluster is responsible for the design and development of advanced missile systems and strategic technologies crucial for national defence and deterrence. This cluster focuses on key areas such as aerodynamics, airframe design, various propulsion technologies (solid, liquid, ramjet, and scramjet), and navigation, control, and guidance systems. Additionally, it works on on-board power supplies, warhead systems, launch systems, and command and control mechanisms for missile systems. Alongside MSS, the Aeronautical Systems Cluster is engaged in the research and development of aircraft, drones, propulsion systems, and avionics, with notable examples including the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas and Rustom drones. The Armament and Combat Engineering Cluster specializes in armaments, combat vehicles, artillery systems, and explosives, including advanced defensive technologies like anti-thermal and anti-laser smoke grenades. Similarly, the Naval Systems and Materials Cluster is dedicated to naval technologies, shipbuilding, marine materials, underwater systems, and sonar-based defence solutions, with key developments such as Maareech (an advanced torpedo defence system) and Varunastra torpedo.

 

      The Electronics and Communication Systems Cluster is focused on cutting-edge research in electronic warfare, communication, radar systems, and sensors, with a notable innovation being Divya Drishti, an electronic warfare system designed to counter hostile drones. The Life Sciences Cluster contributes to defence applications through biomedical research, protective gear, and medical countermeasures, such as the Anti-COVID drug 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) and RF coils for MRI imaging. It also promotes initiatives like Black Goji Berry cultivation in Ladakh, known for its medicinal properties. Lastly, the Micro Electronic Devices, Computational Systems, and Cyber Systems (Med, Cos, and Cyber Systems) Cluster is an emerging field focusing on artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and cognitive systems for cybersecurity and threat detection. One such breakthrough is the Machine Learning-based Anomaly Detection System (MLADS), which identifies and analyzes malicious activities in network traffic, aiding in cyber defence and intrusion detection.

Missiles

     Missiles are rocket-propelled, guided projectiles, designed to deliver an explosive warhead with great accuracy at high speed. They serve various purposes, including offensive and defensive operations, deterrence, and strategic capabilities.

 

These systems are integral to modern defense, designed for strategic or tactical operations. They consist of multiple core components, including:

    • Propulsion System: Powers the missile, allowing it to travel towards its target. Solid, liquid, and hybrid rocket fuels are commonly used.
    • Guidance System: Directs the missile along a specific trajectory. Various methods include GPS, laser guidance, radar, and inertial navigation, which help maintain accuracy.
    • Control System: Manages the missile’s stability and trajectory adjustments. This involves fins, thrusters, or control surfaces that make real-time corrections based on feedback from the guidance system.
    • Warhead: The missile’s payload, often carrying explosives or specialized agents, designed to neutralize the intended target. Warheads vary based on mission goals, such as conventional, nuclear, or cluster warheads.
    • Targeting System: Determines the target’s location and coordinates the missile’s approach, using onboard sensors and external intelligence.

Types of Missiles

       Missiles are self-propelled precision-guided weapons designed to strike targets with high accuracy. They play a crucial role in modern warfare, serving various tactical and strategic purposes. Missiles can be classified based on multiple factors, including their launch platform, target, range, propulsion, and warhead type.

1. Classification Based on Launch Platform & Target

Missiles are primarily categorized based on where they are launched from and their intended target.

A. Air-to-Air Missiles (AAM)

    • Launched from:Aircraft (fighter jets, drones).
    • Target:Enemy aircraft, helicopters, or drones.
    • Features:High maneuverability, infrared/radar guidance.
    • Examples:
        • Astra (India)– Beyond Visual Range (BVR) missile.
        • R-73 (Russia)– Short-range infrared-guided missile.
        • AIM-120 AMRAAM (USA)– Advanced medium-range missile.

 

B. Air-to-Surface Missiles (ASM)

    • Launched from:
    • Target:Ground installations, bunkers, ships.
    • Features:Precision strike capability, some with bunker-busting warheads.
    • Examples:
        • BrahMos-A (India-Russia)– Supersonic cruise missile.
        • AGM-65 Maverick (USA)– Tactical air-to-ground missile.
        • Storm Shadow (UK-France)– Long-range stealth missile.

 

C. Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAM)

    • Launched from:Ground-based launchers, naval ships.
    • Target:Enemy aircraft, missiles, drones.
    • Features:Radar-guided, varying ranges (short to long).
    • Examples:
        • Akash (India)– Medium-range SAM.
        • S-400 Triumf (Russia)– Long-range air defence system.
        • Patriot (USA)– Advanced missile defence system.

 

D. Surface-to-Surface Missiles (SSM)

    • Launched from:Ground-based launchers, submarines.
    • Target:Enemy bases, cities, military installations.
    • Features:Ballistic or cruise missiles, varying ranges.
    • Examples:
        • Agni-V (India)– Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM).
        • Prithvi (India)– Tactical ballistic missile.
        • Tomahawk (USA)– Long-range cruise missile.

 

E. Anti-Tank & Anti-Ship Missiles

Anti-Tank Missiles (ATGM):

    • Launched from:Ground vehicles, helicopters.
    • Target:Enemy tanks, armored vehicles.
    • Examples:
        • Nag (India)– Fire-and-forget ATGM.
        • Javelin (USA)– Top-attack missile. 

 

Anti-Ship Missiles (AShM):

    • Launched from:Ships, aircraft, submarines.
    • Target:Enemy warships.
    • Examples:
        • BrahMos (India-Russia)– Supersonic anti-ship missile.
        • Harpoon (USA)– Subsonic cruise missile.

 On the basis of trajectory:

Ballistic missiles follow a parabolic trajectory, initially propelled upward before descending toward their target under gravity’s influence. Their flight path consists of three distinct phases:

    1. Boost Phase:Powered ascent using rocket engines
    2. Midcourse Phase:Unpowered flight through space or high atmosphere
    3. Terminal Phase:High-speed re-entry and impact

Technical Specifications

    • Altitude:Typically reaches 1,200 km into space (for ICBMs)
    • Speed:Mach 5-24 (hypersonic) during descent
    • Range Classification:
        • Short-range (SRBM): <1,000 km
        • Medium-range (MRBM): 1,000-3,000 km
        • Intermediate-range (IRBM): 3,000-5,500 km
        • Intercontinental (ICBM): >5,500 km

Advantages

✔ Extreme speed makes interception difficult
✔ Capable of carrying massive payloads (including multiple warheads)
✔ Simple guidance requirements during most of flight
✔ Psychological impact due to unstoppable nature

Disadvantages

✖ Predictable trajectory aids enemy tracking
✖ Limited in-flight maneuverability
✖ Requires large launch infrastructure
✖ Political implications of deployment

Notable Global Examples

Indian Systems:

    • Prithvi series (SRBM)
    • Agni series (Agni-V: 5,000+ km ICBM)

 

International Systems:

    • Minuteman III (USA)
    • DF-41 (China)
    • RS-28 Sarmat (Russia)

Modern Developments

MIRV Technology: Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles

What is MIRV Technology?

      MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle) technology represents a quantum leap in ballistic missile capabilities. This sophisticated system allows a single missile to carry multiple nuclear warheads, each capable of striking different targets hundreds of kilometers apart.

How MIRV Works:

    1. Launch Phase:The missile is propelled using powerful boosters
    2. Post-Boost Phase:The “bus” (warhead carrier) maneuvers in space
    3. Dispersion Phase:Warheads are sequentially released with precise timing
    4. Re-entry Phase:Each warhead follows independent trajectories to separate targets

Key Advantages of MIRV Systems

    • Enhanced Strike Capability:Single missile can destroy multiple targets
    • Improved Survivability:Overwhelms missile defense systems
    • Strategic Flexibility:Variable yield options for different targets
    • Cost Efficiency:More destructive potential per launch

 

Global MIRV Capabilities

Country

MIRV-Capable Systems

Estimated Warheads per Missile

USA

Minuteman III, Trident II

3-14

Russia

RS-24 Yars, RS-28 Sarmat

4-15

China

DF-41, DF-5B

3-10

India

Agni-V (under development)

3-6 (projected)

 

Strategic Implications

    • Deterrence Value:Makes first-strike scenarios untenable
    • Arms Race Dynamics:Spurs development of missile defense systems
    • Verification Challenges:Complicates arms control agreements.

Hypersonic Glide Vehicles: Enhanced maneuverability during descent

Hypersonic Glide Vehicles (HGVs) represent the cutting edge of missile technology, combining:

    • Hypersonic speeds(Mach 5+)
    • Atmospheric flight(unlike traditional ballistic trajectories)
    • Unpredictable maneuverability

Technical Characteristics

    • Speed Range:Mach 5-20 (6,000-25,000 km/h)
    • Altitude:30-100 km (upper atmosphere)
    • Maneuverability:Can adjust trajectory mid-flight
    • Detection Challenges:Minimal thermal signature during glide phase

Comparison: HGVs vs Traditional Ballistic Missiles

Parameter

HGV

Ballistic Missile

Trajectory

Low atmospheric glide

High parabolic arc

Detection

Extremely difficult

Relatively easier

Interception

Currently no reliable defense

Some interception possible

Flight Time

Potentially longer

Typically shorter

Accuracy

High precision

Moderate precision

Global Developments in HGV Technology

    • Russia:Avangard system (Mach 20+)
    • China:DF-ZF (operational since 2020)
    • USA:Conventional Prompt Strike program
    • India:BrahMos-II (under development, expected Mach 7)

Strategic Advantages

✔ Reduced Warning Time due to unpredictable trajectory
✔ Penetrates Existing Defenses that are designed for ballistic arcs
✔ Precision Strike Capability against time-sensitive targets
✔ Conventional or Nuclear Payload flexibility

Mobile Launchers: Increased survivability

Mobile launchers have transformed nuclear deterrence strategies by:

      Mobile missile launchers have transformed modern nuclear strategy by overcoming the vulnerabilities of fixed silos. Unlike stationary installations that serve as predictable targets, mobile platforms can relocate continuously, making them far more difficult to detect and neutralize. Their mobility also grants military commanders greater operational flexibility, allowing for strategic dispersal, forward deployment, and sustained readiness without revealing launch positions. Additionally, these systems enhance survivability by blending into civilian infrastructure, utilizing natural cover, and remaining in motion to evade enemy detection. This unpredictability ensures a reliable second-strike capability, reinforcing nuclear deterrence and securing their role as a critical component of modern arsenals.

Types of Mobile Launchers

1. Transporter-Erector-Launchers (TELs)

    • Wheeled or tracked vehicles
    • Can launch within minutes of stopping
    • Example: Russian Topol-M system

 

2. Rail-Mobile Launchers

    • Missiles deployed on specialized trains
    • Difficult to distinguish from civilian rail traffic
    • Example: Soviet SS-24 Scalpel

 

3. Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs)

    • Ultimate mobile platform
    • Provides assured second-strike capability
    • Example: Indian Arihant-class submarines.

Technical Features of Modern Mobile Launchers

    • Rapid Deployment:Can fire within 5-15 minutes of receiving orders
    • Counter-detection Measures:Infrared shielding, deceptive signatures
    • All-Terrain Capability:Operate in extreme weather conditions
    • Automated Systems:Reduced crew requirements.

Strategic Benefits

    • Enhanced Survivability:Difficult for adversaries to track and target
    • Operational Flexibility:Can be dispersed over wide areas
    • Crisis Stability:Reduces incentives for first strike
    • Deterrence Credibility:Ensures second-strike capability.

 

Cruise Missiles: 

Cruise missiles maintain sustained propulsion throughout flight, following a relatively flat trajectory at low altitudes. They function essentially as unmanned, one-way aircraft with these flight phases:

    1. Launch and Boost:Initial acceleration
    2. Cruise Phase:Sustained level flight
    3. Terminal Phase:Final approach to target

Technical Specifications

    • Altitude:Typically 50-100 meters above ground
    • Speed:Subsonic (Mach 0.8) to Supersonic (Mach 2-3)
    • Range Classification:
      • Short-range: <1,000 km
      • Long-range: >1,000 km

Advantages

✔ Extremely precise (CEP often <5 meters)
✔ Low flight profile evades most radar
✔ Can navigate around terrain/obstacles
✔ Variety of launch platforms

Disadvantages

✖ Relatively slow speed
✖ Limited payload capacity
✖ Vulnerable to point defenses
✖ Complex guidance systems required

Notable Global Examples

Indian Systems:

    • BrahMos (Supersonic)
    • Nirbhay (Subsonic)

International Systems:

    • Tomahawk (USA)
    • Kalibr (Russia)
    • Storm Shadow (UK/France)

Modern Developments

    • AI-Based Targeting:Real-time target recognition
    • Swarm Technology:Coordinated group attacks
    • Stealth Features:Radar-absorbent materials
    • Hybrid Propulsion:Combining jet and rocket technologies.

 

On the basis of use:

    • Tactical guided missiles – i.e., missiles intended for use within the immediate battle area (e.g., Helina, Nag).
    • Strategic missiles – missiles designed to strike targets far beyond the battle area (100s – 1000s of kms).

Topic

Cruise Missiles

Ballistic Missiles

Flight Path

Follows a relatively flat, controlled path at low altitudes.

Follows a high, arcing trajectory through space.

Trajectory

Flies at subsonic or supersonic speeds, often hugging terrain.

Flies at extremely high altitudes and speeds, following a ballistic path.

Guidance

Utilizes complex onboard navigation systems for precise targeting.

Guidance primarily during boost phase, limited guidance during descent.

Speed

Typically subsonic or low supersonic speeds.

Capable of reaching hypersonic speeds.

Altitude

Flies at low to medium altitudes.

Reaches extremely high altitudes during the flight.

Role

Versatile, used for precision strikes on specific targets.

Used for strategic purposes, including nuclear delivery over long distances.

Target Accuracy

Offers high accuracy throughout the flight.

Accuracy may vary, primarily focused on targeting during the boost phase.

Operational Range

Varied ranges, from short to long-distance, based on design.

Categorized into short-range, medium-range, intermediate-range, and intercontinental-range missiles.

Types of ballistic missiles based on the range

Short-range (tactical) ballistic missile (SRBM):

       Short-Range Ballistic Missiles (SRBMs) cover distances between 300 km and 1,000 km, making them ideal for theater-level operations and tactical strikes. These weapons typically remain within the Earth’s atmosphere throughout their flight.

Key Characteristics

    • Flight Time:5-10 minutes
    • Altitude:50-150 km
    • Payload Capacity:500-1,000 kg
    • Propulsion:Single-stage solid fuel
    • Guidance:Improved inertial systems (CEP 50-150m)

Strategic Applications

✔ Battlefield support operations
✔ Counter-force strikes against military installations
✔ Rapid response tactical nuclear delivery
✔ Coastal defense against naval threats

Notable Global Systems

Country

System

Range

Special Features

India

Prithvi-II

350 km

Road-mobile, liquid-fueled

Russia

Iskander-M

500 km

Maneuverable reentry vehicle

China

DF-11

600 km

Solid-fueled, transporter-erector-launcher

Pakistan

Hatf-III

700 km

Solid propellant, high mobility

 

Medium-range (theatre) ballistic missile (MRBM):

      Medium-Range Ballistic Missiles (MRBMs) bridge the gap between tactical and strategic systems with ranges from 1,000 km to 3,500 km, capable of covering entire regions.

Key Characteristics

    • Flight Time:15-25 minutes
    • Altitude:300-800 km
    • Payload Capacity:750-1,500 kg
    • Propulsion:Two-stage solid/liquid fuel
    • Guidance:Advanced inertial + possible terminal guidance

Strategic Applications

✔ Regional deterrence postures
✔ Strategic infrastructure targeting
✔ Anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) operations
✔ Secondary nuclear delivery systems

Notable Global Systems

Country

System

Range

Special Features

India

Agni-II

2,000 km

Rail-mobile capable

Iran

Emad

1,700 km

First precision-guided Iranian missile

North Korea

Hwasong-10

3,000 km

Mobile liquid-fuel system

Israel

Jericho II

1,500 km

Underground silo-based

 

Intermediate-range (Long-Range) ballistic missile (IRBM or LRBM):

        Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missiles (also called Long-Range Ballistic Missiles) cover distances between 3,500 km and 5,500 km, forming a crucial link between theater and intercontinental systems.

Key Characteristics

    • Flight Time:25-35 minutes
    • Altitude:800-1,200 km
    • Payload Capacity:1,000-2,500 kg
    • Propulsion:Two/three-stage solid fuel
    • Guidance:Sophisticated inertial + possible stellar updates

Strategic Applications

✔ Transcontinental strike capability
✔ Secondary strategic deterrent
✔ Anti-ship variants emerging
✔ Space launch vehicle derivatives

Notable Global Systems

Country

System

Range

Special Features

India

Agni-IV

4,000 km

Canister launched

China

DF-26

4,000 km

“Carrier killer” variant

Russia

RSD-10 Pioneer

5,500 km

Former INF Treaty system

USA

Pershing II (retired)

1,800 km

Extreme precision (CEP 30m)

 

Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM):

       Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) represent the pinnacle of ballistic missile technology with ranges exceeding 5,500 km, capable of global strategic strike operations.

Key Characteristics

    • Flight Time:30-40 minutes
    • Altitude:1,200-1,500 km
    • Payload Capacity:1,000-3,500 kg
    • Propulsion:Three-stage solid/liquid fuel
    • Guidance:Advanced inertial + possible GPS/stellar

Strategic Applications

✔ Core nuclear deterrent forces
✔ Counter-value city targeting
✔ Hard-target kill capability
✔ Space launch applications

Notable Global Systems

Country

System

Range

Special Features

India

Agni-V

5,500+ km

Canisterized, MIRV capable

USA

LGM-30G Minuteman III

13,000 km

60+ year operational history

Russia

RS-28 Sarmat

18,000 km

Heavy ICBM, FOBS capable

China

DF-41

15,000 km

Road-mobile MIRV system

Types of cruise missiles based on speed

       Cruise missiles represent one of the most versatile weapon systems in modern arsenals, with speed being a critical differentiator in their operational effectiveness. This in-depth analysis examines the three primary classifications of cruise missiles based on velocity – hypersonic, supersonic, and subsonic – exploring their technical specifications, strategic advantages, limitations, and prominent examples from global militaries.

1. Hypersonic Cruise Missiles

       Hypersonic cruise missiles represent the cutting edge of missile technology, achieving speeds exceeding Mach 5 (6,174 km/h). These systems combine extreme velocity with unpredictable flight paths to create nearly indefensible strike weapons.

Key Technical Characteristics

    • Speed Range:Mach 5-10 (6,174-12,348 km/h)
    • Altitude:Typically 30-100 km (high atmosphere)
    • Propulsion:Scramjet (air-breathing) or advanced rocket systems
    • Maneuverability:Aerodynamic control surfaces + possible plasma steering
    • Detection Challenges:Minimal radar cross-section, plasma sheath interference

Strategic Advantages

✔ Near-zero interception probability with current defense systems
✔ Dramatically reduced decision time for targeted nations
✔ Hard-target kill capability through kinetic energy alone
✔ Psychological impact from unstoppable nature

Notable Global Developments

Country

System

Status

Speed

Range

India

BrahMos-II

Development

Mach 7

1,500 km

Russia

Zircon

Operational

Mach 9

1,000 km

China

DF-ZF

Operational

Mach 5-10

2,000 km

USA

HAWC

Testing

Mach 5+

Classified

Technical Challenges

    • Thermal Management:1,600°C+ surface temperatures
    • Material Science:Requires advanced composites
    • Guidance Systems:Inertial navigation compromised at extreme speeds
    • Cost:Estimated $15-25 million per unit

2. Supersonic Cruise Missiles

    Supersonic cruise missiles occupy the middle ground between performance and practicality, offering significant advantages over subsonic systems while remaining more affordable than hypersonic alternatives.

Performance Characteristics

    • Speed Range:Mach 2-3 (2,470-3,700 km/h)
    • Altitude:10-15 km (medium altitude)
    • Propulsion:Ramjet or turbo-ramjet
    • Guidance:GPS/INS + active radar/IIR terminal homing
    • Warhead:200-300 kg conventional/nuclear

Tactical Advantages

✔ Reduced interception window compared to subsonic missiles
✔ Good balance between speed and payload capacity
✔ Proven reliability in combat conditions
✔ Cost-effective for mass deployment

Global Inventory Highlights

System

Country

Speed

Range

Special Features

BrahMos

India/Russia

Mach 2.8

450 km

Sea-skimming capability

P-800 Oniks

Russia

Mach 2.5

600 km

Anti-ship specialization

YJ-12

China

Mach 3

400 km

Carrier-killer variant

LRASM

USA

Mach 2

800 km

Advanced stealth features

Combat Effectiveness Analysis

    • Success Rate:85-90% in test conditions
    • Defense Penetration:Challenges most current CIWS systems
    • Cost-Performance Ratio:Optimal for medium-intensity conflicts
    • Multi-Platform Launch:Compatible with land, sea, and air platforms

3. Subsonic Cruise Missiles

       Subsonic cruise missiles remain the backbone of many nations’ precision strike capabilities, emphasizing stealth and endurance over raw speed.

Technical Specifications

    • Speed Range:Mach 0.7-0.9 (860-1,100 km/h)
    • Altitude:20-100m (terrain-hugging)
    • Propulsion:Turbofan/turbojet engines
    • Range:Typically 1,000-2,500 km
    • Guidance:Multi-mode (GPS, TERCOM, DSMAC, IIR)

Operational Advantages

✔ Extended loitering capability for time-sensitive targets
✔ Lower detectability due to small radar cross-section
✔ Higher payload capacity (500-1,000 kg)
✔ Cost efficiency allows for mass saturation attacks

Global Systems Comparison

System

Country

Speed

Range

Notable Features

Nirbhay

India

Mach 0.8

1,500 km

Terrain-following capability

Tomahawk

USA

Mach 0.74

2,500 km

Modular payload options

Kalibr

Russia

Mach 0.8

2,500 km

Land-attack and anti-ship variants

CJ-10

China

Mach 0.75

2,000 km

GPS/Beidou guidance

Modern Combat Applications

    • First-Strike Weapons:Degrade enemy air defenses
    • Strategic Infrastructure Targeting:Power grids, command centers
    • Anti-Ship Operations:Swarm tactics
    • Deep Strike Missions:Against high-value rear-area targets

Comparative Analysis: Speed vs. Effectiveness

Parameter

Hypersonic

Supersonic

Subsonic

Speed

Mach 5+

Mach 2-3

Mach 0.8

Detection Range

Very Short

Medium

Long

Interception Difficulty

Extreme

High

Moderate

Payload Capacity

Limited (300kg)

Moderate (500kg)

Large (1000kg+)

Cost Per Unit

$15-25M

$3-6M

$1-3M

Range

Medium (1000km)

Medium (500km)

Long (2500km)

Best Application

Time-critical strikes

Anti-ship operations

Sustained campaigns

The Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme

       The Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was a landmark initiative launched by the Government of India in 1983 to achieve self-sufficiency in missile technology. The program was spearheaded by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) under the leadership of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, who played a crucial role in advancing India’s missile capabilities. The IGMDP aimed to design, develop, and produce a wide range of indigenous missile systems for various strategic and tactical defense applications, ensuring India’s security and technological independence in the field of guided missiles.

Objectives of IGMDP

The primary objective of the IGMDP was to develop a robust and self-reliant missile defense system that could address India’s security needs and reduce dependency on foreign imports. The program focused on:

    • Strengthening India’s defense technology through indigenous missile development.
    • Enhancing strategic deterrence by equipping the armed forces with advanced missile systems.
    • Developing a diverse range of missiles capable of serving different combat scenarios, including surface-to-air, surface-to-surface, anti-tank, and tactical battlefield roles.
    • Achieving technological advancements in missile guidance, propulsion, and targeting systems.

Missiles Developed Under IGMDP

Under IGMDP, five missile systems were developed, each serving a distinct purpose in India’s defense strategy:

1. Prithvi Missile (Surface-to-Surface Missile)

    • Role: Short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) for battlefield use.
    • Variants: Prithvi-I (Army), Prithvi-II (Air Force), Prithvi-III (Navy).
    • Range: 150–350 km depending on the variant.

Key Features:

    • India’s first indigenously developed ballistic missile.
    • High precision with conventional or nuclear warhead capability.
    • Road-mobile and ship-launched versions for flexible deployment.

2. Agni Missile (Intermediate & Long-Range Ballistic Missile)

    • Role: Strategic deterrence missile with nuclear capability.
    • Variants: Agni-I to Agni-VI (different range and payload capacities).
    • Range: 700 km to over 10,000 km, depending on the variant.

Key Features:

    • Designed for long-range strike capabilities, reinforcing India’s nuclear deterrence.
    • Agni-V features intercontinental range and MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle) technology.
    • Can be launched from land-based mobile platforms, ensuring operational flexibility.

3. Akash Missile (Surface-to-Air Missile)

    • Role: Air defense system designed to intercept aerial threats.
    • Range: Up to 30 km.

 

Key Features:

    • Can neutralize enemy aircraft, drones, and cruise missiles.
    • Operates at supersonic speeds (Mach 2.5 – 3.0), making it highly effective in combat scenarios.
    • Deployed by both the Indian Air Force and Indian Army for national air defense.

4. Trishul Missile (Short-Range Surface-to-Air Missile)

    • Role: Tactical air defense system for naval and land-based applications.
    • Range: Up to 9 km.

 

Key Features:

    • Designed for quick-reaction interception of low-flying targets.
    • Initially developed for Indian Navy ship-based defense, with ground-based applications.
    • Though later replaced by more advanced systems, it contributed significantly to India’s missile development expertise.

5. Nag Missile (Anti-Tank Guided Missile)

    • Role: Advanced anti-tank weapon system.
    • Range: Up to 7 km.

Key Features:

    • Fire-and-forget technology with infrared homing for precision strikes.
    • Designed to penetrate modern armor and heavily fortified enemy tanks.
    • Variants include NAMICA (Nag Missile Carrier) for armored vehicle deployment and HELINA (Helicopter-Launched Nag Missile) for aerial strike capabilities.

Achievements and Legacy of IGMDP

    • The IGMDP transformed India into a missile-capable nation, reducing reliance on foreign suppliers and boosting defense self-sufficiency.
    • The program played a vital role in establishing India’s nuclear deterrence doctrine, especially with the development of Agni-series ballistic missiles.
    • It strengthened India’s defense industry, leading to the creation of next-generation missile systems such as BrahMos, Agni-VI, S-400 air defense systems, and advanced cruise missiles.
    • The success of IGMDP positioned India among the elite group of nations with sophisticated missile technology, ensuring stronger geopolitical positioning and military superiority.

The Prithvi missiles

     The Prithvi missile series is a crucial part of India’s indigenous missile development program. These surface-to-surface ballistic missiles were developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) led by India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).

The Prithvi missile variants have different ranges:

    • Prithvi-I: Range of around 150-250 kilometers.
    • Prithvi-II: Range of around 250-350 kilometers.
    • Prithvi-III: A more advanced version with a longer range, estimated to be around 350-600 kilometers.

Dhanush

      Dhanush is a naval variant of the Prithvi missile developed by India as part of its indigenous missile development program under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP). It is a ship-launched, short-range ballistic missile primarily designed for deployment by the Indian Navy.

Trishul

     Trishul is an indigenous, short-range, surface-to-air missile system developed by India as part of its Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP). This missile system was primarily designed for the Indian Air Force (IAF) and Indian Army to defend against aerial threats, including enemy aircraft, helicopters, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).

Akash

      Akash is an indigenous medium-range surface-to-air missile system developed by India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) as part of its Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP). The Akash missile system was primarily designed to provide air defense cover against aerial threats, including enemy aircraft, helicopters, drones, and cruise missiles.

Missile

Project Type

Warhead Payload (kg)

Range (km)

Dimension (m)

Fuel/Stages

Weight (kg)

In Service

CEP (m)

Agni-I

Short-Range Ballistic Missile (SRBM)

1,000

700-900

15

Single-stage solid

12,000

Yes

50-100

Agni-II

Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM)

1,000-1,250

2,000-2,500

20

Two-stage solid

20,000

Yes

200-300

Agni-III

IRBM

1,500

3,000-3,500

16.7

Two-stage solid

48,300

Yes

50-100

Agni-IV

IRBM

1,000

3,000-4,000

20

Two-stage solid

17,000

Yes

30-50

Agni-V

Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM)

5,500-6,000

5,000-7,000

17.1

Three-stage solid

50,000

Yes

20-30

Agni-P

Advanced Agni-Prime

1,000-1,250

2,000-3,000

11.3

Two-stage solid

45,000

Under Development

–

 

Air-to-Air missiles

Air to Air Missile (AAM) is a missile fired from an aircraft to destroy another aircraft or any airborne object.

MICA

    • Type: Air-to-Air Missiles
    • Range:500 m to 80 km

 

Astra

    • Type: Air-to-Air Missiles
    • Range: 80-110 km

 

Novator K-100

    • Type: Medium Range air-to-air missile
    • Range: 300–400 km

Surface-To-Air Missiles

A surface-to-air missile (SAM), or ground-to-air missile, is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles.

Trishul

    • Type: Short-range surface to air missile
    • Range: 9 km

 

Akash Missile

    • Type:   Medium-range surface-to-air missile
    • Range: 30-35km

 

Barak 8

    • Type:   Long-Range surface to air Missile
    • Range:  100 km

Surface-to-Surface Missiles

A surface-to-surface missile is a missile that is launched from the ground to strike land or sea targets.

Agni-I

    • Type: Medium-range ballistic missile
    • Range: 700-1250 km

 

Agni-II

    • Type: Intermediate-range ballistic missile
    • Range:  2,000–3,000 km

 

Agni-III

    • Type:  Intermediate-range ballistic missile
    • Range:  3,500 km – 5,000 km

 

Agni-IV

    • Type:  Intermediate-range ballistic missile
    • Range:  3,000 – 4,000 km

 

Agni-V

    • Type: Intercontinental ballistic missile
    • Range:  5000 – 8000 Km

 

Prithvi I

    • Type:  Short-Range Ballistic Missile
    • Range:  150 km

 

Prithvi II

    • Type:  Short-Range Ballistic Missile
    • Range:  350 km

 

Dhanush

    • Type: Short-Range Ballistic Missile
    • Range:  350 – 600 km

 

Shaurya

    • Type: Medium-Range Ballistic Missile
    • Range:  750 to 1,900 km

 

Prahaar

    • Type: Short-Range Ballistic Missile
    • Range:  150 km

Cruise Missiles

A cruise missile is a guided missile used against terrestrial or naval targets that remains in the atmosphere and flies the major portion of its flight path at an approximately constant speed.

BrahMos

    • Type: Supersonic cruise missile
    • Range:  290 km

 

BrahMos II

    • Type: Hypersonic cruise missile
    • Range:  300km

 

Nirbhay

    • Type: Subsonic cruise missile
    • Range:  1,000 -1500 km

Indigenous Technology Cruise Missile (ITCM)

    • Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) conducted a successful flight test of the Indigenous Technology Cruise Missile (ITCM) from the Integrated Test Range (ITR), Chandipur off the coast of Odisha on April 18, 2024.
    • The missile performance was monitored by several Range Sensors like Radar, Electro-Optical Tracking System (EOTS) and Telemetry deployed by ITR at different locations to ensure complete coverage of the flight path.
    • The flight of the missile was also monitored from the Su-30-Mk-I aircraft of the Indian Air Force.
    • The missile is developed by Bengaluru-based DRDO laboratory Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) along with contributions from other laboratories and Indian industries.

Defense Missile

      Missile defense systems are an essential component of a country’s strategic defense, designed to detect, track, intercept, and neutralize incoming ballistic missiles before they can cause damage. India has developed an advanced multi-layered Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) system, which includes exo-atmospheric and endo-atmospheric interceptors to defend against potential missile threats. The key defense missile systems in this program are the Prithvi Air Defence (PAD), Prithvi Defence Vehicle (PDV), and Advanced Air Defence (AAD).

1. Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) – Exo-Atmospheric Anti-Ballistic Missile

The Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) system is an advanced exo-atmospheric missile interceptor designed to destroy incoming enemy ballistic missiles at high altitudes before they enter the Earth’s lower atmosphere.

    • Type: Exo-atmospheric Anti-Ballistic Missile
    • Intercept Altitude: Up to 80 km

Key Features:

    • Functions as the first line of defense against hostile ballistic missile threats.
    • Designed to intercept medium and long-range missiles at high altitudes.
    • Uses an active radar seeker and advanced guidance system to track and destroy incoming missiles.
    • Enhances India’s ability to neutralize enemy missile threats before they reach populated areas.

2. Prithvi Defence Vehicle (PDV) – Exo-Atmospheric Missile Interceptor

The Prithvi Defence Vehicle (PDV) is an advanced exo-atmospheric interceptor missile developed as an upgrade to the PAD system. It is specifically designed to intercept and neutralize enemy ballistic missiles outside the Earth’s atmosphere, enhancing India’s strategic missile defense.

    • Type: Exo-atmospheric Anti-Ballistic Missile
    • Intercept Altitude: Up to 30 km

Key Features:

    • Equipped with two-stage solid propulsion for high-speed interception.
    • Features a heat shield for operations beyond the Earth’s atmosphere.
    • Uses infrared and radar-based guidance systems to track and destroy incoming threats with high precision.
    • Strengthens India’s layered missile defense system, providing an additional level of security.

3. Advanced Air Defence (AAD) – Endo-Atmospheric Missile Interceptor

The Advanced Air Defence (AAD) system is an endo-atmospheric interceptor, meaning it is designed to destroy enemy missiles within the Earth’s atmosphere after they have re-entered from space. It forms the second line of defense in India’s missile defense shield.

    • Type: Endo-atmospheric Anti-Ballistic Missile
    • Intercept Altitude: Up to 120 km

Key Features:

    • Designed to intercept incoming short-range and intermediate-range ballistic missiles.
    • Uses high-speed propulsion and maneuvering capabilities to engage enemy missiles effectively.
    • Equipped with electro-optical and radar-based tracking systems for precision targeting.
    • Works in tandem with PAD and PDV systems to provide a multi-layered defense.

Significance of India’s Missile Defense System

        India’s Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) system is designed to provide a shield against enemy missile threats, ensuring national security and strategic deterrence. With the development of exo-atmospheric and endo-atmospheric interceptors, India has established a multi-layered defense mechanism, capable of neutralizing threats at different stages of missile flight.

Advantages of India’s BMD System

✅ Multi-Layered Protection: The combination of PAD, PDV, and AAD interceptors ensures that enemy missiles can be neutralized at different altitudes, providing a robust defense shield.

✅ Strategic Deterrence: The missile defense system enhances India’s deterrence capabilities, making adversaries think twice before launching an attack.

✅ Technological Advancements: The development of these advanced missile interceptors positions India among the elite group of nations with an independent missile defense system.

✅ Protection of Key Infrastructure & Cities: These systems are capable of safeguarding major cities, military bases, and strategic locations from enemy missile attacks.

 

India’s missile defense system is a crucial pillar of its national security strategy, providing an advanced shield against hostile missile threats. The Prithvi Air Defence (PAD), Prithvi Defence Vehicle (PDV), and Advanced Air Defence (AAD) systems work together to form a comprehensive and multi-layered defense network, ensuring that India remains protected from aerial threats. With ongoing advancements, India continues to strengthen its position as a global leader in missile defense technology.

Submarine-launched Ballistic Missiles

    A Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) is a long-range ballistic missile designed to be launched from submarines. These missiles serve as a critical component of a nation’s nuclear deterrence strategy, ensuring a second-strike capability in the event of an attack. SLBMs provide a strategic advantage by allowing submarines to remain hidden underwater for extended periods, making them difficult to detect and neutralize. With the ability to strike targets at vast distances, SLBMs enhance a country’s defensive and offensive capabilities, offering stealth, mobility, and survivability.

India’s Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles

       India has developed a range of indigenous SLBMs, strengthening its maritime defense capabilities. These missiles are deployed on nuclear-powered submarines, forming an essential pillar of the country’s nuclear triad, which includes land-based, air-launched, and sea-based deterrence.

1. Ashwin SLBM – Short-Range Naval Defense

    • Type: Ballistic Missile
    • Range: 150–200 km

 

Key Features:

    • Designed for short-range naval engagements, providing quick response capability in regional conflicts.
    • Capable of being launched from submarine platforms, enhancing tactical deterrence and maritime security.
    • Supports precision targeting and is ideal for coastal defense missions.

2. Sagarika SLBM (K-15) – Medium-Range Strategic Strike

    • Type: Ballistic Missile
    • Range: 700–1,900 km

 

Key Features:

    • Forms a vital part of India’s nuclear deterrence strategy.
    • Capable of carrying conventional or nuclear warheads, making it a versatile and powerful weapon.
    • Designed for launch from Arihant-class nuclear submarines, ensuring covert, underwater strike capability.
    • Can evade enemy defenses by utilizing a low trajectory and stealth launch mechanisms.

3. K-4 SLBM – Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile

    • Type: Ballistic Missile
    • Range: 3,500–5,000 km

 

Key Features:

    • A powerful intermediate-range SLBM, designed to target distant adversaries with high precision.
    • Deployed on nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs), ensuring stealth and survivability.
    • Can penetrate advanced missile defense systems, making it a reliable weapon in strategic warfare.
    • Strengthens India’s second-strike capability, ensuring retaliation in case of a nuclear attack.

4. K-5 SLBM – Long-Range Strategic Deterrent

    • Type: Ballistic Missile
    • Range: 6,000 km

 

Key Features:

    • India’s longest-range submarine-launched ballistic missile, capable of striking deep into enemy territory.
    • Provides a true intercontinental capability, making it a crucial component of India’s strategic deterrence doctrine.
    • Developed for deployment on next-generation nuclear submarines, ensuring a stealthy and survivable strike force.
    • Equipped with multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), allowing it to hit multiple targets in a single launch.

Strategic Importance of SLBMs

    • Stealth & Survivability: Submarines remain hidden beneath the ocean, making SLBMs harder to detect and destroy compared to land-based missiles.
    • Second-Strike Capability: Ensures India’s ability to retaliate in case of a nuclear first strike, reinforcing national security.
    • Global Reach: Advanced SLBMs like the K-5 provide long-range strike capabilities, deterring potential adversaries.
    • Enhanced Maritime Defense: SLBMs strengthen naval superiority, allowing for strategic deterrence without relying on land-based missile systems.

 

India’s Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) are a cornerstone of its maritime defense and nuclear deterrence strategy. With advanced missiles like the Ashwin, Sagarika, K-4, and K-5, the country is equipped with a robust underwater strike capability that enhances its position as a global military power. As India continues to develop next-generation SLBMs, the future of naval warfare and strategic deterrence will be shaped by stealth, precision, and technological advancements.

Anti-Tank Missile

       Anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs), also known as anti-tank missiles, anti-tank guided weapons (ATGW), or anti-armor guided weapons, are sophisticated missile systems designed to destroy heavily armored military vehicles, including tanks, armored personnel carriers (APCs), and fortifications. These missiles are equipped with advanced guidance systems, ensuring high accuracy and effectiveness in combat scenarios. They can be launched from ground-based platforms, helicopters, and even drones, making them a crucial component of modern warfare.

Types of Anti-Tank Guided Missiles

Several ATGMs have been developed to meet different operational requirements, offering varied ranges, warhead types, and targeting capabilities. Below are some of the most advanced anti-tank missiles:

1. Amogha – Short-Range Anti-Tank Missile

    • Type: Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM)
    • Range: Up to 2.8 km
    • Features:
        • Developed indigenously with fire-and-forget capabilities.
        • Equipped with tandem warhead technology, designed to penetrate explosive reactive armor (ERA) of modern tanks.
        • Suitable for infantry deployment and ground-based launchers, providing rapid response against enemy armor.

2. Nag – Medium-Range Anti-Tank Missile

    • Type: Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM)
    • Range: 4 km
    • Features:
        • Third-generation fire-and-forget missile, developed by India’s DRDO.
        • Uses an imaging infrared seeker (IIR) to home in on the target even in adverse weather conditions.
        • Can be launched from land-based missile carriers (NAMICA) or aerial platforms, providing versatility in operations.
        • Designed to neutralize heavily armored targets, making it a key asset for ground forces.

3. Helina – Long-Range Anti-Tank Missile

    • Type: Helicopter-Launched Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM)
    • Range: 7-8 km
    • Features:
        • Advanced air-launched ATGM, specially developed for use on attack helicopters like the HAL Rudra and Light Combat Helicopter (LCH).
        • Equipped with lock-on-before-launch (LOBL) and lock-on-after-launch (LOAL) capabilities, increasing accuracy and adaptability in battlefield conditions.
        • Features an imaging infrared seeker (IIR) and tandem warhead, ensuring penetration through modern tank armor and defensive countermeasures.
        • Can be deployed in day and night operations, significantly enhancing battlefield superiority.

Importance of Anti-Tank Missiles in Modern Warfare

    • Highly Effective Against Armor: These missiles are designed to destroy even the most advanced main battle tanks (MBTs) by penetrating their reactive and composite armor.
    • Precision and Lethality: ATGMs use laser, infrared, or wire-guided systems, ensuring accuracy and high success rates in target elimination.
    • Versatility in Deployment: Can be launched from handheld launchers, ground vehicles, helicopters, and drones, providing operational flexibility.
    • Force Multiplier in Combat: By neutralizing enemy armor, ATGMs enable ground forces to advance safely and maintain dominance on the battlefield.

 

Anti-tank guided missiles have become an indispensable part of modern military arsenals, providing tactical superiority, precision strikes, and enhanced survivability in armored warfare. With continuous advancements in guidance technology, warhead efficiency, and range capabilities, ATGMs like Amogha, Nag, and Helina ensure that armed forces remain equipped to handle evolving battlefield threats.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

       An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft that operates without a human pilot, crew, or passengers onboard. UAVs have become a critical part of modern defense and surveillance systems, offering enhanced operational capabilities without putting human lives at risk. These aircraft are used for a variety of missions, including battlefield reconnaissance, target tracking, surveillance, and artillery support. UAVs come in different types, including fixed-wing, rotary-wing, and hybrid models, each serving distinct roles in defense, security, and civilian applications.

Types of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

1. Panchi – A Wheeled Variant of the Nishant UAV

    • Type: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
    • Features:
        • Panchi is a wheeled takeoff and landing version of the UAV Nishant, designed to operate from small airstrips and runways.
        • Unlike the Nishant UAV, which relies on an airbag and parachute system for landing, Panchi’s wheeled landing gear allows for multiple takeoff and landing cycles, increasing its operational lifespan.
        • Equipped with advanced surveillance capabilities, it can perform real-time reconnaissance, target tracking, and intelligence gathering.
        • The absence of the parachute system increases its payload capacity and endurance, allowing for longer mission durations.
        • Designed for border security, battlefield surveillance, and intelligence operations, making it a valuable asset for defense forces.

2. Nishant UAV – A Multi-Mission Battlefield Surveillance Drone

    • Type: Tactical Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (TUAV)
    • Features:
        • Designed for the Indian Army, Nishant is a multi-mission UAV capable of operating in day and night conditions.
        • Primarily intended for battlefield surveillance, it provides real-time intelligence to commanders, enhancing situational awareness.
        • Specialized for target tracking, enemy localization, and artillery fire correction, making it a critical tool in modern warfare.
        • Operated using an advanced Ground Control Station (GCS), which enables remote piloting and mission planning.
        • Includes an image processing system to analyze UAV-captured images for reconnaissance and intelligence purposes.
        • Can be launched using a mobile launcher and recovered via a parachute landing system, making it highly deployable in remote and rugged terrains.

Significance of UAVs in Modern Warfare and Surveillance

    • Force Multiplier: UAVs enhance the effectiveness of ground forces by providing real-time intelligence without putting personnel at risk.
    • Extended Surveillance: With long endurance and advanced imaging systems, UAVs can monitor large areas for prolonged periods.
    • Precision Targeting: UAVs like Nishant assist in target localization and artillery fire correction, improving the accuracy of strikes.
    • Flexible Deployment: UAVs can be launched from remote locations, ships, or airbases, offering versatile deployment options.
    • Reduced Operational Costs: Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs have lower operational and maintenance costs, making them a cost-effective solution.

 

The use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) has transformed modern defense strategies, offering unparalleled capabilities in surveillance, reconnaissance, and intelligence gathering. UAVs like Panchi and Nishant serve as vital assets for military and border security operations, ensuring effective monitoring and response in dynamic combat environments. As UAV technology continues to evolve, future advancements will focus on enhanced autonomy, AI-driven intelligence processing, and next-generation stealth capabilities, making drones even more effective in modern warfare.

 

 

Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT)

        Anti-Satellite Weapons (ASAT) are advanced missile systems designed to neutralize or destroy enemy satellites in space, ensuring strategic defense superiority. These weapons play a crucial role in modern warfare, where satellites are heavily relied upon for communication, navigation, intelligence, surveillance, and military operations. By targeting and disabling enemy satellites, ASAT weapons can disrupt an opponent’s ability to gather intelligence, guide precision strikes, and maintain secure communications.

India’s Successful ASAT Missile Test

      India achieved a significant milestone in space defense technology with the successful test of its ASAT missile in March 2019 under “Mission Shakti”, conducted by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). This test showcased India’s capability to defend its assets in space and establish itself as a space power.

Key Highlights of India’s ASAT Test

    • The missile successfully destroyed a live satellite in low Earth orbit (LEO) at an altitude of 283 kilometers.
    • This test made India the fourth country in the world to demonstrate ASAT capability, after the United States, Russia, and China.
    • According to DRDO, the ASAT missile is capable of hitting and neutralizing objects traveling at a speed of 10 km per second from an altitude of up to 1,200 km.
    • The test was conducted with precision and minimal debris generation, ensuring compliance with responsible space operations.

Strategic Importance of ASAT Weapons

    • Space Security & Defense: ASAT technology strengthens national defense by enabling the country to protect its space assets from potential threats.
    • Countermeasure Against Enemy Satellites: These weapons can disable or destroy adversarial satellites, disrupting their surveillance, communication, and military operations.
    • Deterrence Strategy: Demonstrating ASAT capabilities serves as a strong deterrent against potential adversaries, reinforcing national security.
    • Advanced Missile Technology: ASAT missiles represent cutting-edge defense technology, enhancing India’s overall missile development program.

Future Prospects in Space Defense

     With growing reliance on space-based assets for military, communication, and intelligence operations, India continues to invest in advanced space defense technologies, including electronic warfare systems, directed-energy weapons, and cyber capabilities to safeguard its interests in space. The success of Mission Shakti has further paved the way for the development of next-generation ASAT systems and space defense strategies.

    The successful ASAT missile test in 2019 was a landmark achievement in India’s defense capabilities, proving its ability to neutralize threats in space and protect critical satellite infrastructure. As space increasingly becomes a frontier for strategic defense, ASAT technology will continue to play a pivotal role in ensuring national security and global stability.

 

Pinaka Missile System

    • Pinaka is an indigenous multi-barrel rocket launch system developed for the Indian Army by the Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO).
    • Its weapon system includes a cutting-edge guidance package, as well as an advanced navigation and control system.
    • The Pinaka Mark-II Rocket is converted into a missile by integrating with the navigation, control, and guidance system, which improves accuracy and range.
    • The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System assists the missile’s navigation system (IRNSS).
    • It is an artillery missile system capable of striking enemy land with pinpoint accuracy up to a range of 75 kilometers.
    • The weapon system’s first version, known as Mark I, had a range of 40 kilometers.
    • The upgraded version of Pinaka Mark II has an extended range of 70 to 80 km.

 

Mission Shakti

       Mission Shakti was launched to build highly effective anti-satellite weaponry (ASAT). It is a collaboration between the Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) and the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) (ISRO).

ASAT (anti-satellite) system is a missile-based system used to attack moving satellites.

The primary objective of Mission Shakti was to demonstrate India’s capability to safeguard its space assets by developing the technology to shoot down satellites in orbit. The successful test showcased India’s anti-satellite missile technology.

    • The successful test made India the fourth country in the world, after the United States, Russia, and China, to possess the capability to shoot down satellites in space.
    • The test raised discussions and concerns about the militarization of space and the need for international norms and agreements regarding space activities.

 

Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS)

Pilotless Target Aircraft (LAKSHYA)

       Lakshya is a cost effective re-usable high subsonic aerial target system powered by a gas turbine engine and launched either from land or ship. It carries two tow targets of tow lengths of 1.5 km each having radar, IR or visual signature augmentation and Miss Distance Indication Scoring System. These tow targets are used for training of land or ship based gun and missile crew and combat aircraft pilots in weapon engagement. Lakshya is comparable in the same class of vehicle such as Northrop’s BQM-74 Chukar.

 

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle with Multiple Missions (NISHANT)
     The multi-mission, day/night UAV Nishant is utilized for artillery fire correction, target tracking and localization, and battlefield surveillance and reconnaissance. The UAV’s transmitted images are analyzed by a complex image processing system. A mobile hydro pneumatic launcher is used to launch it. The aircraft can fly on its own and is operated from an easy-to-use ground control station. Nishant is a system that is very portable, small, and simple to set up. It is recovered using an impact attenuation system and an aero conical parachute. The aircraft can fly in autonomous Way Point Navigation mode thanks to an internal flight control and navigation system. NISHANT is comparable to vehicles of the same class, like the SEARCHER from IAI.

 

Mini and Micro UAVs

     Together with CSIR-NAL, ADE has developed MAVs and Mini UAVs. The endurance of these vehicles ranges from 20 meters to one hour. Black Kite, Golden Hawk, and Pushpak are the three MAVs that have been created. These are completely self-sufficient aircraft. The Imperial Eagle and Slybird are two variations of the 2 kg class FWMUAV that have been created. ISR data is provided by a gimbaled payload, a video tracking system guarantees continuous ISR data during the flight, and a cutting-edge ground control station manages the entire mission from takeoff to landing. An image processing system that makes the processed data available almost instantly so that the available ISR information can be used to take action. Slybird and Imperial Eagle belong to the same class.

Radars:

      Radar is an electromagnetic sensor that can detect, locate, track, and identify a variety of things at a great distance. It works by sending electromagnetic energy in the direction of targets, or things, and then listening for the echoes that are reflected back from them. The targets could be celestial bodies, automobiles, ships, airplanes, or even rain, insects, and birds. Radar can occasionally determine an object’s size and shape in addition to its presence, location, and velocity. Radar’s capacity to precisely identify an object’s range, or distance, and detect distant objects in inclement weather sets it apart from optical and infrared sensing technologies.

    Since radar uses a transmitter—its own source of illumination—to locate targets, it is a “active” sensing technology. At frequencies ranging from roughly 400 megahertz (MHz) to 40 gigahertz (GHz), it usually functions in the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, which is measured in hertz (cycles per second). However, it has been utilized at optical and infrared frequencies (such as those of laser radar or lidar) and at lower frequencies for long-range applications (such as the HF [high-frequency], or shortwave, band, which is as low as several megahertz). Radar systems’ hardware and circuit components change depending on the frequency being utilized, and they can be as small as the palm of your hand or as large as several buildings.

Radar Functions

      Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) is a critical technology used in military, aviation, maritime, weather forecasting, and various other applications. It operates by transmitting radio waves and analyzing their reflections from objects to determine a range of critical parameters. The complexity and capabilities of a radar system depend on the number of functions it can perform, which influences its size, cost, and technological sophistication.

Fundamental Radar Operations

Radar systems typically perform the following key functions:

1. Range Measurement (Distance Calculation)

    • The primary function of radar is to determine the distance of an object by measuring the time delay between the transmission of a pulse and its return after reflecting off a target. This time delay allows the radar to calculate the exact range of the object with high precision.

 

2. Velocity Detection (Doppler Frequency Shift)

    • The velocity of a target is determined by analyzing the Doppler frequency shift, which occurs due to the relative motion between the radar and the target. If an object is moving toward the radar, the reflected signal’s frequency increases, whereas if it is moving away, the frequency decreases. This principle is crucial in detecting high-speed objects such as aircraft and missiles.

 

3. Angular Direction (Antenna Pointing and Beam Steering)

    • The direction of a target is determined by the pointing angle of the radar antenna or, in the case of phased-array radars, by electronically steering the radar beam. This helps in accurately locating the target within a three-dimensional space.

Advanced Radar Analysis: Inverse Scattering and Signature Recognition

Beyond basic detection, modern radar systems employ sophisticated techniques such as inverse scattering and signature analysis to gather detailed information about detected objects. These include:

1. Target Size Estimation (Based on Return Magnitude)

    • The magnitude of the reflected signal helps estimate the size of the target. Larger objects reflect stronger signals, allowing radar to differentiate between small drones, fighter jets, or large aircraft.

 

2. Target Components and Shape Analysis (Return Variability by Direction)

    • Radar can analyze the shape and structure of a target based on how signals are scattered in different directions. This allows the system to distinguish between different types of aircraft, ships, or vehicles.

 

3. Detection of Moving Components (Modulation of Return Signal)

    • By analyzing fluctuations in the radar return, radar systems can detect moving parts on a target, such as spinning rotor blades on helicopters or deployed landing gear on aircraft. This is particularly useful for tracking complex targets.

 

4. Material Composition Analysis

    • Advanced radar technology can determine the material composition of an object by analyzing how different materials reflect or absorb radar waves. This helps differentiate between metal aircraft, stealth-coated vehicles, and non-metallic objects.

Complexity and Cost of Radar Systems

       The more functions a radar system can perform, the more complex and expensive it becomes. High-end military and defense radars, such as phased-array radars, over-the-horizon radars, and synthetic aperture radars (SAR), incorporate multiple capabilities, making them larger and more resource-intensive. However, advancements in miniaturization, AI-powered data processing, and stealth detection are pushing the boundaries of radar efficiency and performance.

Radar technology has evolved significantly, from basic target detection to sophisticated tracking, imaging, and identification capabilities. As advancements continue, next-generation radar systems will play an even more crucial role in air defense, missile detection, autonomous navigation, and security surveillance across multiple industries.

Fighter Jets: Evolution Through Generations

      Fighter jets have played a crucial role in modern aerial warfare, evolving over generations to incorporate advanced technologies, superior agility, and enhanced combat capabilities. Below is a breakdown of fighter jets across different generations, highlighting their unique features and contributions to air defense and offensive operations.

First Generation: Early Jet Fighters

      The MiG-21, a legendary aircraft known for its speed and maneuverability, remains in service in many air forces worldwide despite its age. This single-engine supersonic jet was designed primarily for air defense and ground attack missions, making it a versatile platform during its operational peak. It was one of the most widely produced fighter aircraft in history, proving its reliability in combat and adaptability across various roles.

Second Generation: Enhanced Air Superiority

       The MiG-29 represents a significant leap in fighter jet technology. This twin-engine air superiority fighter, developed by the Soviet Union, is known for its exceptional agility, high thrust-to-weight ratio, and ability to execute complex maneuvers. Equipped with advanced radar systems and powerful weaponry, the MiG-29 excels in both air-to-air combat and precision air-to-ground strikes. Its continued upgrades and modernization ensure its relevance in modern warfare.

Third Generation: Advanced Multi-role Fighters

     The Sukhoi Su-30MKI is a highly capable third-generation air superiority fighter developed in collaboration between Russia and India. This aircraft is recognized for its high maneuverability, cutting-edge avionics, and versatile combat capabilities. It can carry a diverse array of weaponry, including beyond-visual-range missiles, precision-guided bombs, and anti-ship missiles, making it an invaluable asset for modern air forces. Its supercruise ability, thrust-vectoring engines, and sophisticated radar systems make it one of the most formidable aircraft in its class.

Fourth Generation: Next-Level Multirole Fighters

       The Jaguar, a ground-attack aircraft, is designed specifically for strike missions and deep penetration bombing. This aircraft excels in delivering precision strikes on enemy targets, making it a key asset for air forces conducting ground-based warfare.

     The Dassault Rafale, a French-built multirole fighter, is known for its cutting-edge technology, adaptability, and state-of-the-art avionics. Designed for air superiority, ground attack, reconnaissance, and nuclear deterrence missions, the Rafale is equipped with stealth features, advanced radar systems, and next-generation electronic warfare capabilities.

      The Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet is a proposed next-generation multirole fighter featuring advanced avionics, improved stealth characteristics, and a high degree of combat flexibility. It is designed to handle both air-to-air engagements and air-to-ground strikes, ensuring dominance in modern battlefields.

         The Eurofighter Typhoon, a highly sophisticated multirole fighter developed by a European consortium, is renowned for its speed, agility, and advanced weaponry. It incorporates state-of-the-art avionics, radar systems, and electronic warfare suites, making it a highly effective aircraft for both defensive and offensive operations.

 

As technology advances, fighter jets continue to evolve, integrating stealth capabilities, artificial intelligence, and hypersonic weapon systems to maintain air superiority. Each generation has built upon the strengths of its predecessors, ensuring that modern air forces remain equipped with the most formidable aircraft for both defense and offensive missions.

 

Aircraft Carriers

INS Vikramaditya

The Indian Navy, Severodvinsk, Russia, put the renovated Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Gorshkov into service.

    • Dimensions: At more than 285 meters long, 60 meters wide, and 60 meters high, this is the largest ship in the Indian Navy.
    • Personnel: Known as the “Floating City,” it is home to more than 1,600 personnel.
    • Range: More than 13,000 km is the operational range.
    • Aircraft Capacity: Able to accommodate more than 30 aircraft, including Chetak helicopters, AlH-Dhruv, Kamov 31, Kamov 28, Sea King, and MiG-29K/Sea Harrier.
    •  Landing Systems: Offers DAPS Landing for Sea Harriers and LUNA Landing for MiGs.

 

 

INS Vikrant

    • Size: aircraft carrier, 262 meters long.
    • Power: 88 MW is produced overall by four gas turbines.
    • Speed: 28 knots is the maximum.
    • Aircraft Capacity: Able to fly 30 aircraft, including the Kamov-31, ALH, LCA (Navy), MH-60R multirole helicopters, and MiG-29K fighter jets.
    • Aircraft Operations: Equipped with arrester wires and a ski jump, it uses the STOBAR (Short Take Off but Arrested Landing) mode.
    •  Indigenous Content: 76% of the content is indigenous.

 

Submarines

        A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. Perform crucial underwater operations, including intelligence gathering, surveillance, reconnaissance, and direct attack roles.

E.g. INS Arihant (nuclear-powered) and INS Kalvari (diesel-electric attack submarine – Project 75 and Project 75-I)

Submarines first became a major factor in naval warfare during World War I (1914-18) and played a larger role in World War II (1939-45).

India currently has two nuclear ballistic submarines (SSBN) and fifteen conventional diesel electric submarines (SSKs) in its fleet. Many of these submarines are undergoing renovations and are older than 25 years.

Types of Submarines

      Diesel-electric submarines (SSKs) are propelled by electric motors that are powered by diesel engines. need to resurface frequently for fuel and air, which facilitates detection.

Shishumar Class:

    • In partnership with Germany, four submarines were purchased and constructed in India.
    • Eight submarines of the Kilo Class (Sindhughosh Class) were purchased from Russia between 1984 and 2000.
    • Three submarines of the Kalvari Class (Scorpene) were constructed in India in collaboration with France.
    • With the exception of food supplies, a nuclear-powered attack submarine (SSN) can remain underwater indefinitely.
    • outfitted with land-attack cruise missiles, anti-ship cruise missiles, and torpedoes.

INS Chakra 2:

    • Up until 2022, it is leased by Russia.

Nuclear-Powered Ballistic Missile Submarine (SSBN):

    • A vessel that can launch nuclear warheads at a sluggish speed. India’s first SSBN is Arihant, and three more are being built.

Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) System?

    • Submarines are essentially of two types: conventional and nuclear.
    • Conventional submarines use diesel-electric engines, which require them to surface almost daily to get atmospheric oxygen for fuel combustion.
    • If fitted with an Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) system, the submarine will need to take in oxygen only once a week.

P-75 and P-75(I)

    • Project-75 includes the indigenous construction of six diesel-electric attack submarines of Scorpene design.
    • The submarines are being constructed at Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL) in Mumbai in collaboration with the Naval Group of France.
    • Kalvari Class – Kalvari, Khanderi, Karanj, Vela, Vagir, and Vagsheer.
    • Project-75 (I) envisages the indigenous construction of six modern conventional submarines with contemporary equipment, weapons & sensors, including Fuel-Cell based AIP (Air Independent Propulsion Plant), etc.
    • AIP technology allows conventional diesel-electric submarines to remain underwater for longer, enhancing their lethality.

Chemical Weapons And Biological Weapons

     Chemical and biological weapons are categories of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) that are designed to cause significant harm through the use of chemicals or biological agents.

  Chemical weapons are weapons that are designed to release toxic chemicals, such as nerve agents, blister agents, choking agents, or blood agents, to harm or kill humans. These chemicals can be dispersed as gases, liquids, or aerosols.

According to Chemical Weapons Convention: Chemical Weapon Definition in Three Parts

    1. Toxic chemicals and their precursors
    2. Any munitions or devices specifically designed to inflict harm (e.g., mortars, artillery shells, missiles, bombs, mines, or spray tanks)
    3. Equipment directly in connection with munitions and devices.

Types of Chemical Agents

    • Blister agents: Sulfur mustard, nitrogen mustard, lewisite, and phosgene oxime.
    • Choking agents: Chlorine, Chloropicrin, Diphosgene, Phosgene.
    • Blood agents: Hydrogen cyanide, Cyanogen chloride, Arsine.
    • Nerve agents: V-agents (Ve, Vg, Vm, Vx) and G-agents (tabun and sarin).
    • Riot control agents: Tear Gas, Pepper Spray.
    • Agent orange: A powerful herbicide and defoliant, along with Napalm, used in:
        • Operation Ranch Hand (herbicidal warfare program) by the USA during the Vietnam war (1961-71).
        • Used by U.K. in the Malayan Emergency (1948-60).

Biological Weapons (BWS)

    • Biological weapons are either microorganisms like viruses, bacteria, fungi, or toxic substances produced by living organisms that are created and released deliberately to cause disease and death in humans, animals, or plants as an act of war.

Biological weapons are used in:

    • Tactical military applications
    • Political assassination
    • Infection to plants or animals – leads to food insecurity and economic loss
    • Creating environmental catastrophes, etc.

Helicopters

Apache Helicopters

    • Apache Helicopters are the most advanced multirole heavy attack helicopters in the world. Its modern capabilities include fire-and-forget, anti-tank missiles, air-to-air missiles, rockets, and other ammunition.
        • It features a nose-mounted sensor suite, a 30 mm chain gun, and four hardpoints for carrying missiles and rockets.
        • The IAF has signed a contract with Boeing and the US government for 22 Apache attack helicopters.
        • It will replace the aging Russian Mi-35 attack helicopters in service.

HAL Dhruv

    • The HAL Dhruv is a utility helicopter designed and developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in India. The indigenously designed and developed Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH-DHRUV) is a twin-engine, multirole, multi-mission new-generation helicopter in the 5.5-ton weight class.
        • It can also be armed with rockets, missiles, and guns for combat missions.
        • The major variants of Dhruv are classified as Dhruv Mk-I, Mk-II, Mk-III, and Mk-IV.

HAL Rudra

    • The HAL Rudra, also known as ALH-WSI, is an armed version of HAL Dhruv designed and manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
    • It is equipped with Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) and Thermal Imaging Sights Interface.

 

Hal Chetak

    • The HAL Chetak is a light utility helicopter built by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in India under a license from the French company Aérospatiale.
        • The seven-seater Chetak helicopter is versatile, multi-role, multi-purpose, and spacious.
        • The helicopter is suitable for commuting, cargo/material transport, casualty evacuation, Search & Rescue (SAR), Aerial Survey & Patrolling, Emergency Medical Services, Offshore operations, and underslung operations.
        • The Chetak is being replaced by HAL Dhruv in the armed forces.
        • HAL Chetak – Single engine
        • Maximum speed – Over 210 km/h.

Hal Cheetah

    • The HAL Cheetah is a light utility helicopter built by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in India under a license from the French company Aérospatiale. The Cheetah Helicopter is a high-performance helicopter designed for operation over a wide range of weight, the center of gravity, and altitude conditions.
    • The five-seater Cheetah helicopter is versatile, multi-role, multi-purpose, highly maneuverable, and rugged in construction. It holds the world record in high altitude flying among all categories of helicopters.

Strategic Instruments And Weapons

      Sonars (Sound Navigation and Ranging) –  SONAR systems are used to detect an object underwater with the help of ultrasonic sound waves. A range of Sonar systems, to serve the Indian Navy, has been developed by DRDO, BEL (Bharat Electronics Limited), as well as the Indian Navy.

Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging)

  Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves for determining the range, angle, or velocity and physical features (Size, Shape, Material, texture of an object’s surface) of objects. It can be used for detecting aircraft, ships, spacecraft, weather formations, motor vehicles, guided missiles, and terrain.

      Radar technology operates by emitting radio waves and analyzing the reflected signals that bounce back after hitting objects.

       Doppler Radar – It is a type of radar that uses radio waves to detect and measure the distance, speed, and movement of objects like raindrops or clouds.  It helps to track storms, rainfall, and other weather patterns by sending radio waves that bounce back from objects (like rain or clouds) and interpreting the data.

Doppler Effect – The Doppler effect is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving relative to the wave source.

 

Comparison between SONAR and RADAR

Feature

SONAR

RADAR

Waves Used

Sound or Ultrasound waves

Radio waves, microwaves

Principle

Echolocation

Reflection and scattering of electromagnetic waves

Applications

Underwater navigation, mapping, hydrographic surveys, search and rescue operations, oil, minerals, and gas exploration, etc.

Air traffic control, weather monitoring, military surveillance, object detection, wireless communication, guided missiles, etc.

Range

Works effectively underwater

Works effectively in the atmosphere

Speed

Slower propagation speed compared to radar

Faster propagation speed compared to sonar

Example

Panchendriya, Humsa, USHUS sonar system

Indra series, Rajendra Radar, Netra Airborne early warning and control system (AEW & CS), Swathi Weapon Locating Radar

Ramjet engine vs Scramjet engine

      Jet Engine – A jet engine is a machine that converts energy-rich, liquid fuel into a powerful pushing force called thrust. The thrust from one or more engines pushes a plane forward, forcing air past its scientifically shaped wings to create an upward force called lift that powers it into the sky.

    A ramjet is a form of air-breathing jet engine that uses the vehicle’s forward motion to compress incoming air for combustion without a rotating compressor. Fuel is injected in the combustion chamber where it mixes with the hot compressed air and ignites.

      Ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound) and can operate up to speeds of Mach 6. However, the ramjet efficiency starts to drop when the vehicle reaches hypersonic speeds.

      A scramjet engine is an improvement over the ramjet engine as it efficiently operates at hypersonic speeds and allows supersonic combustion. Thus it is known as Supersonic Combustion Ramjet or Scramjet.

Air Breathing Propulsion System which uses hydrogen as fuel and oxygen from the atmosphere air as the oxidizer.

International Organisations And Conventions

Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

     It effectively prohibits the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological and toxin weapons. It was the first multilateral disarmament treaty banning an entire category of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). India has signed and ratified the convention.

Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)

       It is the implementing body for the Chemical Weapons Convention based in Hague, Netherlands, which oversees the global endeavour to permanently and verifiably eliminate chemical weapons. India is a signatory and party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. [UPSC 2016]

Australia Group

   It is an informal forum of countries which seeks to ensure that exports do not contribute to the development of chemical or biological weapons. All states participating in the Australia Group are parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and do not undertake any legally binding obligations. India was admitted into the group in 2018.

Wassenaar Arrangement

    The Wassenaar Arrangement is the first multilateral body focused on export controls for conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies, and it comprises 42 states (including India). It is consensus-based, with decisions taken on a politically binding basis.

Missile Technology Control Regime

    The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) is an informal political understanding among states that seeks to limit the proliferation of missiles and missile technology.

It places particular focus on missiles capable of delivering a payload of at least 500 kg to a distance of at least 300 km-so called ‘Category I’ or ‘MTCR-class’ missiles. Currently, 35 countries are members of the MTCR, including India (2016).

Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)

    The NSG is a group of forty-eight nuclear supplier countries that seeks to ensure that nuclear trade for peaceful purposes does not contribute to the proliferation of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. India is not a member of the NSG, the main reason being its refusal to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty

     It bans all nuclear explosions, whether for military or peaceful purposes. The 1996 treaty has so far been signed by 187 states and ratified by 178 states, yet not in force. The treaty awaits signature and ratification from India, Pakistan, and North Korea and, in addition, requires the United States, China, Israel, Iran and Egypt (which have already signed) to formally ratify it.

Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)

    It is a landmark international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament. India has not signed the NPT.

The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW)

    Opened for signature in 2017, it prohibits States Parties from developing, testing, producing, manufacturing, acquiring, possessing, or stockpiling nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. The treaty entered into force on 22 January 2021, and India has neither signed nor ratified it.

 

 

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