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The Eastern

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The Eastern Chalukyas are a significant political and cultural entity in the history of the Deccan region, particularly during their rule over the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh.

1. Origins

  • Branch of the Western Chalukyas:
    • The Eastern Chalukyas were a branch of the Western Chalukyas, also known as the Chalukyas of Vatapior Badami. This lineage signifies a connection to one of the major dynasties of South India, which played a crucial role in the region’s history.

 

  • Pulakesin II:
    • Pulakesin II, a prominent ruler of the Western Chalukyas, expanded his influence over the Eastern Deccan, including the coastal regions of Andhra. His successful military campaigns established Chalukyan authority in the area early in his reign.

2. Establishment of Viceroyalty

  • Appointment of Kubja Vishnuvardhana:
    • Pulakesin II appointed his brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana, as Viceroyof the newly conquered Eastern territories. This appointment was instrumental in managing the administration and consolidating control over the region.

 

  • Independence of Vengi Viceroyalty:
    • Following Pulakesin II’s death, the Vengi Viceroyaltytransitioned into an independent kingdom under Kubja Vishnuvardhana, marking the establishment of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. This signifies a crucial point in regional governance and the evolution of local power structures.

3. Capital and Territorial Expansion

  • Capital Location:
    • The initial capital of the Eastern Chalukyas was located at Vengi, near Eluruin the West Godavari district. This location served as a strategic administrative center for the dynasty.

 

  • Later Capital Move:
    • The capital was later moved to Rajamahendravaram(modern Rajahmundry), further reflecting the political and economic shifts within the dynasty.

4. Duration of Rule

  • Long Reign:
    • The Eastern Chalukyas ruled over the Vengi region for nearly 500 years, demonstrating their resilience and ability to maintain power in a dynamic political landscape.

 

  • Interaction with the Chola Kingdom:
    • Their fate intertwined with that of the Chola kingdomto the south, as regional powers often competed for influence. Despite these external pressures, the Eastern Chalukyas retained significant control over Vengi for several generations.

5. Cultural Flourishing

  • Cultural and Literary Contributions:
    • The five centuries of Eastern Chalukyan governance in Vengi contributed to a period of extensive cultural development. The dynasty is often credited with fostering a flourishing of Telugu culture, literature, poetry, and art, marking what many consider a golden erain Andhra’s history.

 

  • Architectural Achievements:
    • Notable architectural contributions from this period include temple constructions and rock-cut caves that reflect the artistic and religious vibrancy of the time.

The Eastern Chalukyas: Over view

      The Eastern Chalukya dynasty was a significant ruling power in South India, particularly known for its contributions to culture, architecture, and administration. Below is an overview of key aspects related to the dynasty, focusing on its founders, capitals, notable rulers, and important inscriptions.

 

Key Features of the Eastern Chalukya Dynasty

1. Founder of the Kingdom:

    • The dynasty was founded by Kubja Vishnuvardhana, who established a strong foothold in the region and built a lineage that would significantly influence the history of South India.

 

2. Capitals:

The Eastern Chalukyas had several capitals throughout their reign:

    • Pithapuram: One of the earliest capitals.
    • Vengi: The capital was changed to Vengi during the time of Jayasimhavallabha.
    • Rajahmundry: Ruled notably by Ammaraja I, who established Rajahmundry as his capital.

 

3. Emblem:

    • The royal emblem of the Eastern Chalukyas was the Varaham(boar), symbolizing strength and authority.

 

4. Official Language:

    • Sanskritwas the official language of the administration, reflecting a commitment to cultural and scholarly traditions.

 

5. Greatest Ruler:

    • Gunaga Vijayadityais often regarded as the most celebrated king of the Eastern Chalukyas, known for his contributions to architecture and religious patronage.

 

6. City Builders:

Significant urban developments were made during this period:

    • Vijayawadawas established by Yudhamalla, contributing to trade and commerce in the region.
    • Rajahmundrywas developed under Ammaraju I, further solidifying its importance as a cultural and administrative center.

 

7. Construction of Temples:

    • Vijayaditya IIis noteworthy for building 108 Shiva temples, demonstrating the dynasty’s commitment to religious architecture and supporting Hindu worship.

Important Inscriptions

1. Vipparla Inscription:

    • Issued during the reign of Jayasimha Vallabha I, this inscription is notable for being the first complete Telugu inscription, marking a milestone in the literary development of the Telugu language.

 

2. Addanki Inscription:

    • Known as Taruvoja Vruthantham, this inscription is associated with Panduranga (Gunaga Vijayaditya’s senani or commander). This inscription is recognized as the first poem inscription in the form of padya shasanam.

 

3. Vishnuvardhana II:

    • He is credited with the construction of the anakatta(a water reservoir) of Kolleru Lake, emphasizing the importance of water management and irrigation in enhancing agricultural productivity.

 

4. Chellava:

    • A notable figure known as Gaana Gandharva Visaradaserved in Chalukya Bhima’s court and was granted the village of “Attili” as a gift, reflecting the patronage and distribution of land under the Eastern Chalukyas’ rule.

Sources

     

The history of the Vishnukundin dynasty and the Vemulavada Chalukyas is comprehensively documented through a variety of inscriptions, literary sources, and coins. These sources provide valuable insights into the political, cultural, and economic histories of these dynasties.

1. Inscriptions

1. General Overview:

    • In the inscriptions from the early rulers of the Ikshvaku lineage, particularly spanning from Kubja Vishnuvardhanato Vishnuvardhana V, records typically mention only the names of three generations: the donor, his father, and his grandfather. Historical records regarding their victories are notably sparse, indicating limited information available from this early period.

 

 2. Sataluru Inscription:

    • Issued by Gunaga Vijayaditya(or Vijayaditya III), this inscription details the chronology of earlier rulers in the dynasty, including their ruling periods and major events that occurred during their reigns.

 

3. Neelgund Inscription (866 A.D.):

    • This inscription reveals that Gunaga Vijayadityawas a feudatory of Amoghavarsha I, the Rashtrakuta king, illustrating the tributary relationships that characterized political interactions of the time.

 

4. Sanjan Copper Plate Inscription (872 A.D.):

    • Unique among feudatories, Gunaga Vijayaditya is noted for cleaning the walking path for Amoghavarsha, reflecting his role in maintaining relations with prominent rulers.
    • The inscription suggests that Kubja Vishnuvardhana ruled over Vengiindependently after acknowledging the authority of Pulakesi II, thus establishing local governance.

 

5. Kopparam Inscription (631 A.D.):

    • This inscription mentions Kubja Vishnuvardhanaas the representative of Pulakesi II, confirming the connections between the two dynasties and Pulakesi’s conquests in coastal Andhra.

 

6. Cheepurupalli Inscription (641 A.D.):

    • Issued by Kubja Vishnuvardhana, this inscription notes that he assumed the title of “Maharaja,”indicating his elevation within the royal hierarchy and authority.

 

7. Aihole Inscription:

    • This is a significant inscription for understanding the history of Pulakesi II, the most celebrated ruler among the Badami Chalukyas. Composed in Sanskritby Ravikeerthi, his Minister for War, it provides insights into military campaigns and accomplishments.

 

8. Satara Inscription:

    • Documented by Pulakesi II, this inscription details his appointment of Kubja Vishnuvardhanaas the ruler of Vengi, showcasing the delegation of power in the realm.

 

9. Nagarjuna Konda Inscription:

    • This inscription notes specific details pertinent to the Mula Purushaof the Badami Chalukyas and offers administrative insights regarding the Vemulavada Chalukyas, a branch that ruled in the Telangana region.

 

10. Kollipara Copper Plate Inscription:

    • Issued by Arikesari I, this inscription contributes to the understanding of governance and regional control.

 

11. Vemulavada Copper Plate Inscription:

  • From Arikesari II, who ruled in the first half of the 5th century A.D., this document outlines administrative matters and local governance.

 

12. Chennur Copper Plate Inscription (941 A.D.):

    • It reveals conflicts involving Yuddhamalla I, who attacked Vijayaditya, a Mudigonda Chalukya king. The inscription states that Vijayaditya sought assistance from Arikesari II, who subsequently offered shelter and support.

 

13. Kurkyala Inscription (940 A.D.):

    • Written by Jayavallabha, brother of the famous poet Pampa, this inscription is vital for understanding the historical context of Arikesari II. It notes Pampa’s authorship of ‘Adipurana’around 941 A.D.

 

14. Repaka Inscription (968 A.D.):

    • This inscription records that Arikesariconstructed a Jain temple at Repaka and issued land grants for its support.

 

15. Parbhani Copper Plate Inscription (966 A.D.):

    • Documented during the reign of Arikesari III, it notes the construction of Jain temples by the Subahdar, indicating the continuing patronage of religious institutions.

2. Literary Sources

1. Vikramarjuna Vijayam

    • Author: Written by the renowned poet Pampa, this work is significant in the historical and literary landscape of the time.
    • Language: Composed in Kannada, it showcases the linguistic and cultural diversity present in the region during the Vemulavada Chalukyan period.
    • Significance: This epic poem narrates the heroic stories and virtues of its titular character, Vikramarjuna, embodying themes of valor, ethics, and duty.

 

2. Patronage of Arikesari II

    • Patronage: Pampa was patronized by Arikesari II(930-941 A.D.), reflecting the close relationship between poets and the royal court. This patronage helped foster literary creativity and cultural production in the dynasty.

 

3. Yasastilaka Champukavyam

    • Author: Written by Somadevasuri, a respected Jain scholar, this work is also known as “Yasodhara Charitra.”
    • Content: The text is significant for understanding Jain religious doctrines, providing insights into social and political details as well. It examines the life and virtues of Yasodhara, the wife of Gautama Buddha.
    • Cultural Impact: This work facilitates a deeper understanding of the cultural dynamics of the time, particularly the interactions between Jainism and other religious practices in the region.

 

4. Neetikavyamruta

    • Author: Also attributed to Somadevasuri, this text is regarded as another leading literary source during the Vemulavada Chalukyan period.
    • Content: Neetikavyamrutaexplores ethical and moral teachings, contributing to the philosophical discourse prevalent in the society of that time.

 

The literary output of the Vemulavada Chalukyas, notably works by authors like Pampa and Somadevasuri, reflects the cultural richness and complexity of the era. These texts not only document the values, beliefs, and social structures of the time but also facilitate understanding of the regional interactions between different religious traditions.

3. Coins

      The Eastern Chalukyas were known for their minting of various types of coins, which played a significant role in facilitating trade and economic activity during their rule from the late 1st millennium AD.

 

Key Features of Coins

1. Types of Coins:

    • Gold Coins: Referred to as ‘gadya’, these coins were the primary currency for higher-value transactions and trade.
      • Gadya coins also had alternative names such as:
          • Rajanarayana Gadya
          • Surabhi Gadya
          • Tyaga Gadya

 

    • Silver Coins: Known as ‘mada’, these were used for medium-value transactions, indicating a robust trade system that required diverse currency options.

 

    • Copper Coins: Called ‘kasu’, these coins were likely used for everyday transactions and smaller purchases, making them essential for the local economy.

 

2. Historical Discoveries:

    • Coins with the name ‘Chalukya Chandra’, issued during the reign of Eastern Chalukya Saktivarma(999-1011 A.D.), have been discovered in locations such as Arakan (now part of Myanmar) and Siam (now Thailand). This indicates the extent of trade relations during the period and the mobility of these coinages across regions.

 

3. Economic Insights:

    • The presence and variety of coins from the Eastern Chalukyan era provide valuable insights into the economic conditions and developments of the time. They reflect the intricate trade networks established and the administrative practices of the dynasty.

 

4. Cultural Significance:

    • The coins not only served as a medium of exchange but also functioned as tools for propaganda and cultural identity. The symbols and inscriptions on the coins can elucidate aspects of governance, religious affiliations, and societal values of the time.

 

The coinage of the Eastern Chalukyas highlights an advanced economic system that facilitated trade and commerce within their realm and beyond. The naming conventions of the coins, along with their discovery in foreign territories, underscore the dynasty’s involvement in regional trade networks and their significance in promoting economic prosperity.

Theories Regarding the Origin of the Vengi Chalukyas

      The Vengi Chalukyas, also known as the Eastern Chalukyas, have been the subject of various theories regarding their origins. These theories reflect the complexity of the region’s history and the interplay of different cultural and political influences.

1. Maharashtra Origin

Proponent: Durga Prasad Dixit (D.P. Dixit)

    • P. Dixit argues that the Vengi Chalukyas originated from the border areas of Karnataka and Maharashtra. This suggests a geographical and cultural continuity with the Western Chalukyas, enhancing the understanding of their roots.

 

Hiuen Tsang’s Reference:

    • The Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang(Xuanzang) mentioned Pulakesi as being from the Maharashtrian region, supporting the theory that the Eastern Chalukyas had their origins tied to Maharashtra.

2. Karnataka Origin

Proponent: Dinesh Chandra Sarkar (D.C. Sarkar)

    • Sarkar posits that the names of prominent rulers such as Pulakesiand Bhattarasa suggest that they hail from the Kannada-speaking region. This interpretation underlines the linguistic and cultural ties that the Eastern Chalukyas may have had with Karnataka.

3. North Indian Origin

Nandampudi Inscription:

    • The Nandampudi inscription(associated with Rajaraja Narendra) indicates that the Eastern Chalukyas claimed descent from the Chandravamsa Kshatriyas of Ayodhya. However, this theory has been rejected by some historians who question the historical authenticity and implications of this claim.

 

The origins of the Vengi Chalukyas remain a complex topic within the broader narrative of South Indian history. Each theory presents valuable insights into their likely roots and the sociopolitical dynamics of their time. Continued archaeological and epigraphical studies may provide further clarity regarding the lineage and contributions of this significant dynasty.

Rulers

 Kubja Vishnuvardhana

       Kubja Vishnuvardhana was a pivotal figure in the history of the Eastern Chalukyas (Vengi Chalukyas), recognized for his establishment of independence and significant contributions to the political and cultural landscape of Andhra Pradesh. Below are the key aspects of his reign:

Key Features of Kubja Vishnuvardhana’s Reign

1. Titles:

    • He held notable titles such as Makaradhwajaand Vishamasiddhi, which likely reflect achievements in governance and martial prowess.

 

2. Independence:

    • Kubja Vishnuvardhana declared independence in 624 A.D., establishing the Eastern Chalukyan rule after the decline of the Ikshvaku dynasty. This marked a significant turning point in the political landscape of the region.

 

3. Recognition by Badami Chalukyas:

    • His rule was officially recognized by the Chalukyas of Badamiin 631 A.D., solidifying his authority and the legitimacy of the Eastern Chalukyan dynasty.

 

4. Territory:

    • Kubja Vishnuvardhana ruled over the majority of Andhra Pradesh, with the exception of some parts of Rayalaseema. This territorial control was critical for trade and cultural interactions in the region.

 

5. Inscriptions:

He issued several important inscriptions that provide insights into his reign and contributions:

    • Chejerla Inscription
    • Chipurupalli Inscription
    • Kopparam Inscription
    • Thimmapuram Inscription

 

These inscriptions are valuable for understanding the administrative practices, social conditions, and cultural affiliations during his rule.

 

6. Religious Devotion:

    • Kubja Vishnuvardhana was a devoted follower of Vishnu, and his religious patronage likely influenced the cultural landscape of his kingdom.

 

7. Familial Connections:

    • The name Bezawada(modern-day Vijayawada) is said to have originated from his wife, Bezza Mahadevi. This highlights the significance of royalty in the naming and cultural representation of places.

 

8. Wife’s Influence:

    • His other wife, Ayyana Mahadevi, was a follower of Jainismand is notable for constructing the Nedumbi Basadi at Bezawada. This reflects the coexistence of multiple religions and highlights the impact of royal women in the cultural and religious development during his reign.

 

9. Contemporary Visitors:

    • During Kubja Vishnuvardhana’s reign, the famous Chinese traveler, Hiuen Tsang(Huang Tsang), visited Andhra Pradesh. His accounts provide valuable insights into the social, cultural, and religious conditions of the region during this period.

 

Kubja Vishnuvardhana’s reign marked the establishment and consolidation of the Eastern Chalukyan dynasty, characterized by territorial expansion, cultural patronage, and the integration of multiple religious traditions. His inscriptions and familial connections illustrate a nuanced approach to governance and cultural identity, which had a lasting influence on the region’s history.

Jayasimha Vallabha

Contributions:

    • Issued the Vippala inscription, renowned for being the first fully written Telugu inscription. This marks an essential point in the history of the Telugu language, demonstrating its use in formal records.
    • Shifted the capital from Pithapuramto Vengi, indicating a strategic move to enhance governance and administration.
    • Founded Ghatikas, educational institutions that provided important centers for learning and fostered the spread of Vedic studies and other disciplines.

Indrabhattaraka Varma

Tenure:

    • Noted for a brief but notable reign of only seven days.

Inscriptions:

    • Issued the Kondanagur inscription, which contributes to understanding the administrative and cultural context of his time, despite the brevity of his rule.

Vishnuvardana II

Significance:

    • Issued the Reyuru inscription, which provides insights into his administration and contributions to the dynasty’s legacy.

Kokili Vikramaditya

Establishment of Independence:

    • Established an independent kingdom at Yelamanchili, demonstrating regional authority and local governance.

Conflict:

    • His rule came to an end when he was ousted by Vishnuvaradana III, indicating the tumultuous political environment of the time.

Vishnuvaradana III

Titles:

    • Known by the title “Kavipandita Kamadhenu,”reflecting his contributions to literature and the arts.

Inscriptions:

    • Issued the Mushinikonda inscription, which further documents the lineage and achievements of the Eastern Chalukyas.

Vijayaditya I

Military Conflicts:

    • His reign marked the beginning of conflict with the Rashtrakutas, a powerful dynasty that emerged as a prominent force in the Deccan region.

Vishnuvaradana IV

Defeat:

    • Faced defeat at the hands of Dhruva, a Rashtrakuta king, indicating the shifting power dynamics during this period.

Family Ties:

    • Post-defeat, Dhruva married Sheela Mahadevi, the daughter of Vishnuvaradana IV, enhancing the inter-dynastic alliances.

Vijayaditya II

Titles and Achievements:

    • Held multiple titles, including Narendra Mrugaraju, Chalukyarama, and Vikramadhavali.
    • Notable for defeating Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta king, showcasing his military prowess.
    • Engaged in 108 battles, and as a testament to his victories, he constructed Narendrashwara templesat every battle site, commemorating his successes.
    • The city of Bezawadagained prominence and became known as Vijayawada in his honor, signifying the lasting cultural impact of his reign.

 

The Eastern Chalukyas had a profound impact on the socio-political and cultural landscape of South India. Their rulers navigated complex relationships with neighboring kingdoms, established centers of learning, and contributed to the architectural legacy of the region. Through inscriptions and historical records, the accomplishments of these kings reflect the rich heritage and intricate history of the time.

Gunaga Vijayaditya

      Gunaga Vijayaditya is recognized as one of the greatest rulers of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty, known for his military conquests and contributions to religious architecture. His reign is marked by significant historical and cultural developments. Here are the key aspects of his life and accomplishments:

 

Key Features of Gunaga Vijayaditya’s Reign

1. Ancestry:

    • He was the grandson of Vijayaditya IIand the son of Kalivishnuvardhana, continuing the lineage of influential rulers within the Eastern Chalukya dynasty.

 

2.Duration of Rule:

    • Gunaga Vijayaditya ruled for 43 years, overseeing a transformative period characterized by military expansion and cultural patronage.

 

3. Military Campaigns:

    • He famously marched from the Ganges in the north to the Kaveri in the south, carrying the victory flag of the Chalukyas. His military activities reinforced the dynasty’s power and territorial claims.

 

4.Construction of Temples:

During his reign, several notable temples were erected in the East Godavari district, including:

    • Birudaankaprolu(Bikkavolu)
    • Chandrasekhara Temple
    • Golingeswara Temple
    • Rajaraja Temple

This architectural legacy reflects his dedication to promoting Hindu worship and cultural practices.

 

5. Mathematical Proficiency:

    • Gunaga Vijayaditya was proficient in mathematics, leading to his name “Gunaga,”which signifies a connection to the concept of measurement and calculation.

 

6. Important Inscriptions:

Several inscriptions from his reign provide insights into his rule and achievements, including:

    • Machilipatnam Inscription
    • Satalur Inscription
    • Addanki (Taruvoja Vrittam)
    • Guntur Inscriptions

These inscriptions document both his administrative policies and military exploits.

 

7. Conflict with the Boya Kottas:

    • In the first year of his rule, he declared war on the Boya Kottas.His military commander, Panduranga, led successful campaigns against them, capturing 12 kottas and burning Nellore, their main center. The fortification of Kandukuru ensured regional security, transforming it into a stronghold akin to Bejawada.

 

8. Urban Developments:

    • Pandurangaestablished Pandurangapuram and constructed the Panduranga Maheshwara Temple at Pulicat Lake, indicating the growth of urban centers and religious sites under his command.

 

9. Inscriptions and Titles:

    • The Addanki inscription, commissioned by Panduranga, is noted for being the first poetic inscription(padya shasanam) in Telugu.
    • Gunaga Vijayaditya was acknowledged for defeating various regional rulers, including Krishna IIand Baddega of Vemulawada, earning the title “Tripura Martya Maheswara.”

Other notable titles included:

    • Parachakrarama
    • Vira Makara Dhwaja
    • Ranaranga Shudraka
    • Gunakesallata(meaning great in Guna)
    • Prthvi Vallabha
    • Bhuvana Kundarpa
    • Manuja Prakasa

 

10. Political and Military Dynamics:

    • His ability to confront and defeat powerful kingdoms, such as the Pallavasand Pandyas, highlights his military efficacy. It is believed that by defeating the Pallavas and Pandyas, he may have assisted a Chola king, possibly Aditya Chola, seeking refuge.

 

Gunaga Vijayaditya’s reign was marked by military success, territorial expansion, and a significant emphasis on cultural and religious development. His contributions to temple construction, patronage of the arts, and linguistic growth reflect the dynamic landscape of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty. His legacy is characterized by the intertwining of governance, military achievement, and cultural richness, setting a profound influence on the region’s historical trajectory.

Ammaraju I

  • Title: Rajamahendra.
  • Family: His wife was Chamekamba.
  • Capitals: During his reign, the original capital of Vengiwas destroyed due to fratricidal wars. In response, he established a new city named Rajamahendravaram and shifted the capital there. This move underscores the challenges faced during his reign and his efforts to bolster governance.

Yuddamalla II

Contributions:

    • He is known for issuing the Bezawada inscription, which provides insights into his administration.
    • During his reign, Bezawada(present-day Vijayawada) was developed significantly, enhancing its importance as a trade and cultural center.

 

Temple Construction:

    • Yuddamalla II built the Karthikeya/Kumara Swamytemple at Bezawada, further illustrating the dynasty’s commitment to religious patronage and the construction of significant temples.

Ammaraju II

Expertise:

    • Ammaraju II was recognized for his proficiency in training elephants, which played a vital role in military and ceremonial aspects of governance.

Inscriptions:

    • He issued the Maliyampudi inscription, adding to the historical record of the region during his administration.

Cultural Contributions:

    • He constructed Jain basadis(temples) at Kalu Chembur village, reflecting the influence and presence of Jainism during his rule.

Danarnava

Inscription:

    • He is known for issuing the Magallu inscription, which likely contains important details about his reign and contributions.

Vimaladitya

Patronage:

    • Vimaladitya was a significant patron of Jainism, reinforcing the religious pluralism present during the Eastern Chalukyan period.

 

Cultural Contributions:

    • He carved a cave for his guru, Trikalayogi Siddhanti, at Ramatirtha, indicating the reverence for spiritual teachers and the significance of monastic life in the region.

 

The rulers of the Eastern Chalukyas significantly impacted the political, cultural, and religious landscape of South India. Their contributions to temple architecture, inscriptions, and the patronage of both Hindu and Jain traditions reflect a dynasty that valued artistic achievement and cultural development. Each ruler played a role in navigating the challenges of their time, ensuring the continuity of governance and the flourishing of diverse religious practices.

Society Under the Eastern Chalukyas

       The Eastern Chalukyas played a pivotal role in shaping the social structure of South India, particularly in the Andhra region. Their reign was characterized by significant social changes that influenced subsequent developments in the region.

 

Key Social Developments

1. Establishment of the Four-Fold Caste System:

    • The four-fold caste system(Varna system)  became well established  during  the  Eastern Chalukyan  period. This system categorized  society  into four primary  groups:  Brahmanas  (priests),  Kshatriyas  (warriors), Vaishyas (traders and agriculturists)  and  Shudras (laborers and service providers).
    • Occupations became more crystallized and defined based on caste, providing a framework for social organization.

 

2. Transformation of Professions:

    • The Ashtadasha(meaning “18”) professions that were recognized during the Satavahana dynasty evolved into Ashtradasha Jathis (caste groups) under the Eastern Chalukyas. This transformation underscores the increasing specialization of trades and professional classes.

 

3. Emergence of Agricultural Communities:

    • The Shudracaste, particularly the Komatis, experienced a rise in social status by emerging as a robust agricultural community. This marks a significant development in Andhra society as they became recognized as an enterprising and economically influential group.
    • The Komatisare believed to have originated from Gowda Desha (Bengal) and settled in Penugonda, contributing greatly to local agriculture and trade.

 

4. Worship Practices:

    • The arrival of the Komatis saw the establishment of the practice of worshipping “Kanyaka Parameswari,”a deity that symbolizes fertility and abundance. This reflects the integration of agricultural practices with religious observances tied to prosperity.

 

5. Brahmin Community Divisions:

For the first time, the Brahmin communitywas notably divided into two major sects:

    • Vaidiki: This group consisted of priests specializing in Vedic rituals and ceremonies.
    • Niyogi: Appointed priests who served specific families or communities, reflecting their roles in local religious practice
    • On the basis of regional variations and specific occupations, the Brahmin community further subdivided into Kammanadu, Valanadu, and Palanadu This indicates a growing complexity within the social hierarchy.

 

Under the Eastern Chalukyas, significant social transformations took place that laid the foundation for future developments in Andhra society. The crystallization of the caste system, the emergence of influential agricultural communities, and the division of the Brahmin class into various sects reflect the evolving dynamics of social organization and identity during this period. These changes provided a framework for the cultural and economic interactions that would characterize later historical developments in the region.

Social Changes Towards the End of the Chalukyas Era

      As the Chalukyan era drew to a close, various social transformations took place that significantly influenced the structure of society in Andhra and its surroundings.

1. Brahmin Migration

Migration to Tamil Nadu:

    • A notable trend during this period was the migration of Brahminsfrom Andhradesha to Tamil Nadu. This movement signifies the expanding cultural exchanges and the search for opportunities in the prosperous Tamil regions.

 

Inscriptions and Cultural Identification:

    • Inscriptions such as Thandamand Thottam issued by the Nandivaram of the Pallavas refer to the Tamil Brahmins as “Arama Dravidas.” This classification showcases the blending of identities and the significance of migration in the sociocultural context.

2. Amalgamation of Tribes

Integration of Forest Tribes:

    • The amalgamation of forest tribesinto mainstream society was notably marked by the actions of Commander Panduranga, who conquered the Bayakottams (tribal settlements) and integrated them into Brahmanical society. This reflects the evolving dynamics of social stratification and the influence of established religious and cultural practices on tribal communities.

3. Professional and Craft Communities

Viswakarmas:

    • Viswakarmas, primarily followers of Vaishnavism, were divided into five occupational groups known as “Panchanam,” includin categories such as kase (goldsmiths), kancheri (weavers), and vadrangi (carpenters), showcasing the diversity of crafts and trades in the region.

4. Role of Educational Institutions

Jain Educational Centers:

    • The Jain Sanghasand their educational centers, known as Ghatikas, played a crucial role in promoting education during this time. These institutions facilitated the spread of Jain values and teachings, contributing to the educational fabric of the region.

 

Centers of Learning:

    • Bejawada(Vijayawada) and Ramathirtham emerged as primary centers for educational activity, while Rajahmundry and Amaravathi continued to serve as significant sites for Brahmanical learning. The commitment to education helped foster intellectual development in the region.

 

Liberal Land Grants:

    • The Chalukyas made liberal land grantsto support these educational institutions, which were instrumental in the advancement of various subjects, including Sanskrit grammar, medicine, mathematics, and astronomy.

5. Women’s Position in Society

Freedom and Liberty:

    • Women enjoyed a degree of freedom and libertyduring this period. Women like Chellawa excelled in dance and music, reflecting their participation in cultural life.

 

Social Issues:

    • However, social issues such as prostitutionand the Devadasi system became prevalent, with some segments of society justifying these practices, indicating ongoing social complexities and challenges regarding women’s rights and status.

6. Cultural Life and Entertainment

Cultural Sources:

    • “Abhilasathirthachintamani,”written by Chalukyas Someswara, serves as an authentic source regarding the society of the period, discussing a wide range of hobbies, pastimes, and entertainments.

 

Popular Entertainment:

    • Kolatam, a popular folk dance among the Andhras, and Geyanatakams such a “Ankamalikas” became major forms of  entertainment, showcasing the vibrant cultural life of the time.

 

Towards the end of the Chalukyan period, significant social changes occurred that laid the foundation for the evolving cultural landscape in Andhra. The migration of Brahmins, the integration of tribal communities, and the flourishing of educational and cultural institutions reflect a dynamic society adapting to new influences. The interplay between tradition and emerging practices defines this rich and complex era, ultimately shaping the subsequent historical developments in the region.

Religious Conditions Under the Eastern Chalukyas

      The Eastern Chalukyas presided over a vibrant and complex religious landscape characterized by a blend of traditions, including the strengthening of Brahmanism alongside the persistence of Buddhism and Jainism.

1. Strengthening of Brahmanism

Prominence of Vedic Religion:

    • Brahmanism became increasingly influential during the Eastern Chalukyan period, characterized by the growth of sects such as Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism. This strengthening reflects broader socio-political changes and the desire to consolidate power through religious legitimacy.

2. Emergence of Shaivism

Predominance of Shaivism:

    • Within Brahmanism, Shaivismemerged as a dominant sect during this era. Various sects within Shaivism developed, including:
        • Pasupathas: Founded by Nakulin, this was the earliest sect that focused on the worship of Pashupati(a form of Shiva).
        • Kalamukhas: Established by Kalosana, a disciple of Nakulin, they upheld distinct practices and beliefs within Shaivism.
        • Kapalikas: Notable for their extreme rituals and practices, including the worship of Shakti and Shiva. They engaged in practices considered unconventional, such as ritualistic consumption from skulls and rituals associated with the dead and pancha mudras (five symbolic gestures).

 

Major Centers:

        • Prominent centers for the Shaiva sect included Srisailam, Tripuranthakam Alampuram and  Mahanandi,  which  became hubs  of  worship and  pilgrimage during this time.

3. Rise of Vaishnavism

Influence of Ramanujacharya:

    • The latter part of the Eastern Chalukyan era saw a promotion of Vaishnavism, particularly through the teachings of Ramanujacharya, who developed the philosophy known as Visishtadvaita(qualified non-dualism).

Communal Clashes:

    • This period witnessed tensions between Shaivitesand Vaishnavites. A significant event wasthe excommunication of Ramanuja from Sriperumbudur by Kulottunga Chola, which stemmed from his advocacy for Vaishnavism. Such conflicts highlight the emerging sectarian divides in religious practices.

4. Integrative Worship Practices

Panchayatana Worship:

    • The concept of Panchayatana, initiated by Adi Shankara, gained prominence. This practice involved the simultaneous worship of five deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Shakti,and Ganapati. This inclusive approach aimed to unify various sects within Brahmanism.

5. Temples as Socio-Religious Hubs

Centers of Activity:

    • Temples became central sites for socio-religiousand economic activities for the first time, functioning as places where rituals were performed and community gatherings occurred.

 

Monastic Institutions:

    • Monastics associated with temples, known as Mathas, provided shelter for sanyasis (ascetics) who played acritical role in propagating Brahmanical traditions and philosophies.

 

Processions and Jataras:

    • The practice of taking deities out for procession(Ureegimpu) began, enhancing community participation in religious observances. Festive gatherings known as Jataras also became prevalent, as reflected by the Bejawada Yuddhamalla inscription, which mentions Mahasena’s Jatara at Chejarla.

6. Women’s Roles and Social Practices

Worship Practices:

    • The worship of Karnikaperameshwari, a goddess of chastity and prosperity, began to gain popularity within the Vaishya community.

 

Devadasi System:

    • The Devadasi system, involving the dedication of dancing girls to temples, began to establish itself during this time. This tradition reflected the complex roles of women in society, as many women, including entertainers like Chellawa, excelled in dance and music.

 

7. Jainism’s Continued Presence

Patronage and Decline:

    • Jainism received relatively less patronage during the Eastern Chalukyan period compared to Vedic traditions. However, Ayyan Mahadevi, the queen of Kubja Vishnuvardhana, is noted for constructing the Nedumbibasadiat Bejawada, indicating some continuation of support for Jain practices.

Art and Architecture of the Eastern Chalukyas

      The Eastern Chalukyas were instrumental in the development of art and architecture, particularly through their temple constructions, which reflected the cultural and religious ethos of their time. Below are the key features that define the architectural contributions of the Eastern Chalukyan dynasty:

1. Temple Construction

Revival of Religious Architecture:

    • The widespread popularity of the Saiva bhakti cultand, to a lesser extent, the Vaishnava cult in the kingdom led to an extensive construction of temples. This architectural boom is a testament to the devotion and belief systems prevalent among the populace.

 

Vijayaditya II:

    • Notably, Vijayaditya IIis credited with the construction of 108 temples, which showcases his commitment to religious architecture and the patronage of Hinduism during his reign. This proliferation of temples became a hallmark of the dynasty’s cultural legacy.

2. Significant Temples Built

Kartikeya Temple:

    • Yuddhamalia Ierected a temple dedicated to Kartikeya at Bezwada (modern-day Vijayawada), an important religious site that reflects the worship of this popular deity.

 

Gunaga Vijayaditya’s Contributions:

    • King Gunaga Vijayadityaconstructed several significant temples, including:
        • Rajarajeswara Temple
        • Golingeswara Temple
        • Chandrasekhara Templeat Biccavolu (East Godavari district). These temples are known for their architectural beauty and intricate carvings.
  •  

Mahasen Temple:

    • The Mahasen Templeat Chebrole (Guntur District) was well known and served as a prominent site for worship and community gathering.

 

Chalukya Bhima I’s Contributions:

    • Chalukya Bhima Iconstructed the Draksharama Temple and the Chalukya Bhimavaram (located in Samalkot), both significant for their architectural excellence and religious importance.
  •  

Memorial Shrines:

      • Rajaraja Narendraerected three memorial shrines at Kalidindi (West Godavari), reflecting the tradition of commemorating royal figures or important events through temple constructions.

3. Development of Unique Architectural Style

Emergence of Distinct Style:

    • Following the architectural traditions of the Pallavasand the early Chalukyas, the Eastern Chalukyas developed their own independent architectural style. This style is particularly visible in the Pancharama shrines (of which the Draksharama Temple is a standout example) and the temples at Biccavolu.

 

4. Rich Iconography

Sculptural Details:

    • The Golingeswara Templeat Biccavolu is particularly noteworthy for its richly carved sculptures that include representations of various deities, such as:
        • Arthnariswara(a composite form of Shiva and Parvati)
        • Shiva
        • Vishnu
        • Agni
        • Chamundi
        • Surya

These detailed carvings illustrate the skilled craftsmanship and the artistic sensibilities of the time.

 

          The Eastern Chalukyas made significant contributions to the architectural heritage of South India, marked by their extensive temple constructions and the development of a unique artistic style. Their alignment with religious practices, particularly Saivism and regional traditions, facilitated a flourishing of culture that remains evident in the surviving structures. The influence of both the Pallava and early Chalukya styles, combined with their own innovations, established a rich tapestry of religious architecture in Andhra Pradesh.

Development of the Telugu Language

      The Telugu language underwent significant development during the rule of the Eastern Chalukyas and subsequent dynasties, benefiting from a rich literary tradition and evolving cultural practices. Below is an overview of important inscriptions that reflect the growth and early literary forms of the Telugu language.

 

Key Inscriptions and Contributions

1. Amaravati Inscription:

    • The inscription features the word “Nagabu,”recognized as the first Telugu word documented in historical records. This finding was researched by Veturi Prabhakara Sastri, highlighting the antiquity of the Telugu language.

 

2. Kalamalla Inscription:

    • This inscription contains the prose of Renati Dhanunjayaand is noted as the first Telugu prose inscription. It marks an important milestone in the transition from oral traditions to written literature.

 

3. Yerragudi Inscription:

    • The inscription attributed to Erikal Muthurajuis significant as it remains preserved to this day. It contributes to understanding the historical context of Telugu language usage in official records.

 

4. Potladurthi Inscription:

    • Renati Punyakumarais known for this inscription, which is written in Geya Paddathi and identified as Dvirada Gati Ragada. This indicates the poetic nature of early Telugu inscriptions and the established tradition of writing poetry.

 

5. Mallepadu Inscription:

    • The inscription from Satyaditya, a Telugu Choda Raja, highlights the continuing development of the language and its recognition in royal contexts.

 

6. Aarumbhaka Inscription:

    • This inscription, issued by Badapamaharaju, is a poem written in Sanskrit, showcasing the interplay between Sanskrit and Telugu during this period and reflecting the literary traditions of the time.

 

7. Chajerla Inscription:

    • Issued by Kubja Vishnuvardhana, this inscription is significant in that more than halfof the text contains Telugu words, indicating the growing prominence of the language in official documentation.

 

8. Vipparla Inscription:

    • The Vipparla inscriptionfrom Jayasimha Vallabha is recognized as the first complete Telugu text inscription, marking a crucial milestone in the development of Telugu as a written language.

 

9. Lakshmipura Inscription:

    • This inscription, attributed to Mangi Yuvaraju, reflects the continued use and significance of the Telugu language in administrative and cultural contexts.

 

10. Koravi Inscription:

    • The Koravi inscription demonstrates that the Telugu language had reached a written level, further indicating its maturity and use in formal documentation.

 

11. Sataluru Inscription:

    • Issued by Gunaga Vijayaditya, the Sataluru inscriptionfeatures two halves: one in Telugu and the other in Sanskrit, showcasing the bilingual nature of administrative texts during this period. It is noted for containing a poem titled Champakamala Vritta.

 

The development of the Telugu language during the era of the Eastern Chalukyas and preceding dynasties illustrates a dynamic transition from oral traditions to a richly documented literary culture. The inscriptions reflect the language’s evolution and significance in various cultural, administrative, and literary contexts. This period laid the groundwork for the flourishing of Telugu literature that would follow in subsequent centuries.

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